Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra) Climax & Disintegration of Mughal Empire- 1 -

Problems of Succession

• Background: The last years of Shah Jahan's reign were marred by a bitter war of succession among his four sons.
• Principal claimants: Dara Shikoh (the crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangzeb (governor of the Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
• Outcome: Aurangzeb emerged victorious in the struggle and entered Agra Fort after defeating Dara Shikoh.
• Shah Jahan: After his defeat Aurangzeb forced Shah Jahan to surrender and confined him to the female apartments of Agra Fort, placing him under strict watch; Shah Jahan lived there for eight years and was cared for by his daughter Jahanara.

Aurangzeb's Reign (1658-1797)

Aurangzeb assumed the imperial title Alamgir (the World Conqueror) on becoming emperor. His long reign can be divided broadly into two phases: an initial period of successful military expansion and consolidation, followed by extended difficulties arising from prolonged warfare and internal unrest.

Early military success and title

• During the first decade of his rule Aurangzeb conducted successful military campaigns that extended Mughal authority in several regions.
• He adopted the title Alamgir, emphasising his role as a conquering monarch.

Policy in the Deccan

• The Mughal interest in the Deccan predated Aurangzeb, but as governor of the Deccan he pursued a belligerent policy to contain southern powers and Maratha expansion.
• He decided to invade the Deccan kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkonda to limit the rise of the Marathas.
• Aurangzeb defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed the kingdom; he then moved against Golkonda and ended the Qutb Shahi dynasty there.
• The destruction of these Deccan principalities removed a buffer between the Mughals and the Marathas and led to a direct, prolonged confrontation with the Maratha polity.

Religious policy and its implications

• Aurangzeb's religious measures and perceived harshness towards non-Muslim elites and popular groups created widespread discontent.
• His policies contributed to opposition from several social and regional groups, including the Jats, Satnamis and Sikhs, and strained relations with many Rajput chiefs.

Longer-term problems during his reign

• Although the first 25 years saw concentration on the north-west frontier and consolidation, the prolonged Deccan campaigns and internal revolts in the later period seriously weakened imperial resources.
• Military overstretch and the fiscal cost of long campaigns gradually reduced the capacity of the central government to control distant provinces effectively.

Political Developments Under Aurangzeb

• After-effects of succession wars: Recurrent wars of succession before Aurangzeb's accession had already undermined central authority; local rajas and zamindars sometimes withheld revenue or began plundering adjacent territories.
• Centralisation attempts: On succeeding to the throne Aurangzeb tried to consolidate imperial control by reasserting Mughal prestige and tightening administration in regions that had enjoyed relative independence.
• Consequences: These measures provoked rebellions and resistance across the empire, as local rulers and social groups resisted renewed central interference.

Popular Revolts for Regional Independence

Several popular and regional movements challenged Mughal authority during Aurangzeb's rule. These revolts were led by diverse social groups and regional leaders and inflicted serious damage on Mughal prestige and control.

Jats

• Origin of revolt: In the Mathura region peasant and zamindar unrest developed into open rebellion under local leaders.
• Initial Mughal responses did not completely crush the movement, leading to recurring discontent.
• A subsequent uprising led by Rajaram was better organised; rebels employed guerrilla tactics and plundering to sustain their resistance.
• Churaman, a successor in Jat leadership, capitalised on Mughal weakness to carve out an autonomous principality in the region.

Satnamis

• The Satnami sect, founded in 1657 at Narnaul (present-day Haryana), became a source of organised resistance.
• In 1672 the Satnamis revolted after a Mughal soldier killed a member of their community; this incident triggered broader unrest against Mughal authorities.
• Satnami forces achieved several victories against Mughal detachments before being decisively defeated by Mughal forces under the leadership of Radandai.

Afghans

• A revivalist movement known as Raushanai provided an intellectual and moral background for Afghan unity and resistance.
• An Afghan tribal leader, Bhagu, assumed the title Muhammad Shah and led an uprising that diverted Mughal attention from the Deccan theatre.
• This Afghan revolt drew Mughal military resources and complicating the imperial response to other simultaneous threats, including Maratha expansion.

Sikhs

• In 1675 Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru; this act intensified hostility between the Sikhs and the Mughal state.
• Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru, led armed resistance and organised Sikh military responses that inflicted significant blows on Mughal authority in the Punjab.

Rajputs

• Initially Aurangzeb maintained cordial relations with many Rajput chiefs, but his later policies reflected a harder attitude towards non-Muslim elites.
• The Rajput rebellion of 1679-80 revealed growing estrangement and resistance among important Rajput houses.
• Aurangzeb's treatment of notable Rajput leaders such as Rana Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur and Rana Jai Singh of Amber damaged earlier alliances; Jaswant Singh is reported to have died at the fort of Jamrud while Jai Singh was removed from influence by court intrigues and poisonings are recorded in some accounts.
• Jodhpur was captured by the Mughals for a period and a prolonged struggle with the rulers of Marwar followed; after Aurangzeb's death the Rajputs regained opportunities to reassert local control and recover lost territories.

Consequences and Long -term Effects

• Fragmentation of authority: Prolonged warfare in the Deccan, combined with internal revolts and administrative strains, led to weakening of central control and the rise of regional powers.
• Rise of regional polities: The Marathas, along with resurgent Rajput, Jat and Sikh polities, increasingly filled the power vacuum in different regions formerly under firm Mughal control.
• Fiscal and military strain: Continuous military campaigns drained the imperial treasury, while prolonged deployment of troops across distant fronts reduced the capacity to suppress simultaneous uprisings effectively.
• Political decentralisation: Provincial governors, zamindars and local chiefs exploited the declining authority of the centre to assert greater autonomy, accelerating the process of political disintegration after Aurangzeb's death.

The reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) marked the high-water point of territorial expansion for the Mughal Empire but also the beginning of long-term decline. His early military successes and title of Alamgir were offset in later decades by costly wars in the Deccan, alienation of large social groups through religious and administrative policies, and a series of regional revolts. These combined factors weakened central authority and set the stage for the political fragmentation of the subcontinent in the eighteenth century.