Old NCERT Gist (RS Sharma): State and Varna Society in the Age of Buddha | Additional Study Material for UPSC PDF Download

Material life

• Archaeologically, 6th century BC was the beginning of NBP phase (Northern Black Polished Ware).
• NBP = glossy, shining pottery, fine fabric used as    tableware for rich people.
• Metal money began to be used.
• Burnt bricks began around 3rd century BC.
• NBP Phase = Second urbanization.
• After disappearance of IVC (-1500 BC), no towns existed for 1000 years.
• Artisans and merchants were organized into guilds. They lived in boxed localities or towns.
• Crafts were hereditary and specialization developed because of localization and the guild system.
• Earliest metal coins are made of silver; copper rarely. Punch-marked with hills, trees, bulls, elephants etc.
• Writing began couple of centuries before Asoka and contributed to trade and commerce and law and order. Sulvasutras deal with sophisticated measurements.
• Rural NBP sites have not been found but kingdoms could not have existed without a strong rural base to support them and give taxes.
• Nucleated settlements wherein people lived in one area and their farm-lands existed surrounding that area seem to have begun during the age of Buddha.
• Iron implements have been found in plenty.

Administration

• Monarchy prevailed and rulers were kshatriyas.
• Jataka tales speak of expulsion of cruel kings, but these instances were rare.
• Officials present were:
  Mahamatras = Higher officials
  Mantri = minister
  Senanayak = commander
  Ayuktas performed similar operations at state level.
• High officers were mainly recruited from brahmanas.
• Early village headmen were called graminis (head of tribe).
• After settled life, they came to be known as grambhojak or gramiks.
• Headmen collected taxes and maintained law and order.
• Tolls were collected by saulkiks and shulkadhyakshas.
• Sabha and samiti disappeared.
• These were essentially tribal institutions and with increasing population and expanding kingdoms, it was impossible to convene them frequently.
• An exclusively Brahmin body called Parishad replaced them.
• Assemblies were still present in republican states like Lichhavis, not in monarchies.
• Administrative machinery of the republican states consisted of: raja, up-raja, senapati and bhandagarika (treasurer).
• It is said that 7707 rajas existed and met in the common Lichhavi assembly to take collective decisions.
• Each raja maintained his own standing army.
• Digha nikaya, in Pali, speculates on the origin of kingship and monarchy.

Economic Life

➢ Pali texts speak of 3 types of villages:

• Typical villages inhabited by various castes and communities. Largest in number. Headed by Bhojak (headman).
• Suburban villages in the nature of craft villages (Carpenter’s village near Varanasi). These served as markets for typical villages and linked towns with countryside.
• Border villages lying on the edge of the empire and merging with forests. People here were mainly fowlers and hunters and lived a backward life.
  (i) Village lands were divided into plots and allotted family-wise.
  (ii) Fields were fenced and irrigation channels were dug. l/6th of produce was paid as tax (bali).
  (iii) Bali, which was voluntary in early vedic times, became compulsory and was collected by balisadhaks.
  (iv) Some villages were granted to brahmanas and rich merchants but they got only revenue, not administrative authority.
  (v) Rich peasants = grihapatis who employed slaves and labourers for cultivating their land.
• Rice was staple. Paddy is mentioned    in Pali texts. Transplantation of paddy started around this time.
• Barley, pulses, millets, cotton, sugarcane were also produced.

Law and Social Legislations

• Earlier, people were governed by tribal law.
• After establishment of vama system, the Dharmasutras laid down duties of 4 varnas and civil and criminal laws came to be based on it.
• Jainism and Buddhism allowed Shudras to enter their fold but did nothing much to improve their situation.
• Their position continued to remain low. Ancient Indian polity, economic and society got shaped during Buddha’s period.