Old NCERT Summary (RS Sharma): Formation of New States & Rural Expansion | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Background: Differences from Sangam period

• Before 300 AD, Northern TN, south K’taka, south MH and land b/w Godavari and Mahanadi broadly owed allegiance to seats of power outside their domains. Now, several kingdoms sprang up in these regions.
• Eventually, Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas of Badami and Pandyas of 
• Madurai emerged the major powers.
• Trade, towns and coinage declined in this period, contrary to sangam period.
• Land grants were given to Brahmanas and this resulted in expansion of agrarian economy.
• Previous phase was marked by Buddhism and Jainism in AP and K’taka respectively.
• In this period, widespread Brahmanism was prevalent.
• Jainism was restricted to K’taka and several kings performed vedic sacrifices.
• This phase marks the beginning of building of temples for Shiva and Vishnu by Pallavas in TN and Chalukyas in Badami (K’taka).
• By the end, south ceased to be a land of megaliths and became a land of temples.
• Earlier, Prakrit in Brahmi script was the language used for inscriptions and literature.
• By this period, Sanskrit became the official language in the peninsula and most charters were written in it.

Formation of New States

• In North MH and Vidarbha (Berar), Satavahanas → Vakatakas.
• Chandragupta II married his daughter to Vakataka prince who died and thus managed to conquer the Konkan coast.
• Vakatakas → Chalukyas of Badamis Rashtrakutas (feudatories of Chalukyas).
• Satavahanas (Deccan) → Ikshvakus (Krishna-Guntur region)(started land grants and built monuments in Nagarjunakonda nd Dhamikota) → Pallavas (means creeper and also means robber; took some time to become civilized, set up capital at Kanchipuram).
• Pallavas came in conflict with Kadambas who ruled over North K’taka in 4th century.
• Mayursarman defeated Pallavas and gave extensive land grants and set up capital at Vaijayanti or Banvasi.
• Gangas set up kingdom in South K’taka, between Kadambas and Pallavas.
• Were feudatories of Pallavas most of the time.
• Made land grants to Jains, but favoured Brahmanas more.
• All kings performed yajnas and gave lavish gifts and land grants to priests.
• Priests emerged as an important class at the expense of the peasantry.
• This oppressive situation was ended by a revolt led by Kalabhras.
• They overthrew kings and put an end to brahmadeya (villages given to priests) rights.
• They patronized Buddhism.
• Were put down by joint action of Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pandyas.

Conflict between Pallavas and Chalukyas

• Pulakesin II - famous Chalukyan ruler who stopped Harsha’s advances near Narmada and overthrew Kadambas and forced Gangas to accept suzerainty. Ravikirti wrote a eulogy for him in the Aihole inscription. which is an example of poetic excellence in Sanskrit.
• Pulakesin II reached Pallava capital but was given northern provinces and pacified.
• He later acquired region b/w Krishna and Godavari, named it Vengi and set up a branch called Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• Second invasion in Pallava territory ended in failure.
• Pallava king Narsinhvarman occupied Badami in ~642 AD and Pulakesin II was killed.
• Narsimhvarman = Vatapikonda.
• Chalukyan king Vikramaditya II overran Kanchi 3 times and completely defeatd Pallavas in 740.
• Chalukya hegemony brought to end by Rashtrakutas in 757.

Temples and Architecture

• Worship of Vishnu and Shiva was getting popular.
• Alvars (Vishnu) and Nayanars (Shiva) popularized the worship of their gods from 7th century. [Trick to remember: Shiva = third eye = nayan = nayanar]
• By Pallava kings:
  7 ratha temples at Mahabalipuram (stone temples; Narsimhvarman)
  Shore temple, structural construction at Mahabalipuram
  Structural temples at capital Kanchi, similar to Kailasnath Temple in 8th century.
• By Chalukyas:
• Numerous temples at Aihole from 610.
• In adjacent towns of Bdami and Pattadakal. Latter has 10 temples built in 7th and 8th centuries. Famous ones are Papanatha Temple (680, northern style, low tower) and Virupaksha temple (740, southern style, high square and storied tower “shikhara”). Temple walls have beautiful scenes from Ramayan.
• The temples seem to have been maintained out of taxes. Common people worshipped local gods by offering them paddy and toddy.

Rural Life

• Peasants faced heavy burden of demands.
• Had to give land tax, produce as tax, give food and supplies to marching army, do forced labour (vishti), provide plant produce to the king for sugar, liquor etc, and give oxen and food to officials who came to the village to settle disputes or try criminals.
• These burdens could not be fulfilled without rural expansion. Grants given to Brahmanas made available tribal labour and land for spreading agriculture and civilization.
• Three types of villages: Ur, Sabha and Nagaram.
• Ur = normal village
• Sabha = brahmadeya villages granted to brahmanas and agrahara villages.
• Individual rights enjoyed.
• Nagaram = Villages inhabite by merchants and traders. Traders possibly moved to villages due to decline in trade.
• Mahajan managed rural affairs in Chalukyan kingdom.

Social Life

• Priests dominated.
• Princes called themselves Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.
• Priests invented respectable family trees to provide legitimacy to rulers.
• Priests gained authority because of numerous land grants.
• Peasantry was divided into numerous castes.
• If a particular caste of artisans or peasants failed to do its duties, it was looked upon as departure of established norms and referred to as “Kaliyug”.
• It was duty of the king to stop this departure. So, title Dharma-Maharaja adopted by almost all kings of the region.