Notes: Post Independence - 2 | Post Independence History for UPSC Mains PDF Download

Relations with Pakistan

Despite the bitterness generated by Kashmir issue and communal massacre, India tried to adopt a generous and friendly attitude towards Pakistan. It gave Rs 550 million to Pakistan for India's assets on the insistence of Gandhiji going on fast. It also tried to mollify communal sentiments and urged Pakistan to protect minorities as a matter of duty. Nehru even signed 'Nehru Liaquat' pact with Pakistan's then PM to prevent communal killings of Hindus in east Pakistan and Muslims in West Bengal. That, however, didn't stop killings and refugee immigration. India also showed its generousness in the Indus Water Treaty facilitated by World Bank and allowed Pakistan to take major share of its waters.

Consolidation of INDIA 

• Indian national leadership was aware that integration and unification is a long ongoing process and is beset with challenges even before independence.
• The biggest challenge came in form of partition. Even if physical and territorial integration is achieved, in words of Nehru, 'psychological and emotional integration remain the biggest challenge', given India's enormous diversity. 
• More than 1,500 languages and dialects out of which 14 major ones were recognized by constitution in 8th Schedule. There were tribes, there were minorities in terms of language and religion and so on. Challenge for India was to utilize this diversity so that India can leverage upon that and turn it into 'unity in diversity'.
• Broad strategy for consolidation was a multi-pronged one involving political and territorial integration, secularism and anti-communalism, mobilisation of political and institutional resources, economic development, and adopting such policies that promote social justice in society. 
• Constitutional and political structure was made conducive to the demands of diversity and unity in diversity. Decentralisation was distinguished from disintegration. 
• Various means of positive discrimination were provided and a promise of free and fair election served as a guarantee of participation of everyone. Parliament acted as a unifying force.
• Political parties of all hues and ideology - whether Socialist Party, CPI, Jan Sangha or Swantantra Party -were mainly all-India in character and promoted a bigger goal of natinoal integration. Congress also had people of all hues in it and it itself accommodated diverse ideologies from rightists to socialists. 
• Whether from Congress or outside, most of the national leaders were a product of national movement and were not tied to any narrow regional ideology.
• Indian Army and administrative services were also agents of national integration. They were merit-based and had a pan-Indian outlook. All India recruitment free from caste, color, region and religion bias and common training inculcated a common national character in these services.
• Similarly, in the field of economy, industrialisation was carried out in all parts of the nation and even taken to rural and backward areas. Big industries became a symbol of national endeavour and unity. Economic development was seen as necessary for national consolidation and planned development was pursued.
• Center state relations were also aptly handled and there were fewer occasions of confrontations. Center adopted an accommodative approach and Congress rule in both center and state helped this cause.
• An independent, non-aligned foreign policy also supported the consolidation process as it freed India from an ideological bias.
• In social sphere, steps were taken to minimize inequalities and disparity through various active steps like positive discrimination for weaker sections, land reforms, community development program, integrated rural development and so on. 
• However, caste and other social evils were most inadequately addressed. It was on the social front that the integration agenda lagged behind the most. As a result, caste discrimination continued unabated and took the form of casteism mobilisation of caste identities for electoral gains.

Political and Territorial Integration

• The accession of princely states was one of the most daunting tasks. Princely states occupied almost 40% of the colonial territory and were more than 500 in numbers. 
• During British rule, they enjoyed paramountcy and were insulated from both external aggression and their own people under British patronage. Many of them started to think of independent existence after independence was declared amidst the ambiguous statement of British PM Clement Atlee that paramountcy is not transferrable to either India or Pakistan. 
• British government however later clarified the matter and urged the states to join either of the dominions, but a few states have made their mind.
• The presence of such independent states interspersed within India could have posed significant security, political and administrative challenges threatening the hard earn liberty and integrity of the nation itself. 
• Further, the people of these states were equal stakeholders in the national movement and had their own aspirations of liberty and pan-Indian nationalism. National movement and its leaders have also long believed that power lies in the hands of people and not the princely rulers. State People's Conference has also been demanding democratic transfer of power and integration with larger national identity for a long.
• Integration of such states was done through both pressure and persuasion in two stages under the able guidance of Sardar Patel who was also helped by V P Menon. Some of them joined at the time of formation of constituent assembly out of sheer patriotism or wisdom, others lingered on. 
• Patel urged states to join before 15th August 1947 with lenient terms or the face of their own people and perhaps the government of India as well. As result, all but three states - Junagarh, Kashmir and Hyderabad - have joined India before D-day.
• Junagarh lied in Saurashtra and today's Gujarat and had no border touching with Pakistan, but its ruler Nawab still wanted to merge into Pakistan despite opposition from the majority of its subjects of which were Hindus. Pakistan encouraged Nawab to sign an accession document, but people launched a movement and Nawab had to flee to Pakistan. The Indian government was then invited to intervene by its Dewan and India army was sent in. A plebiscite was held in which overwhelming support was there in favour of joining India.
• In Kashmir, Hari Singh was a Hindu ruler with 75% of the Muslim population and he was also averse to the idea of joining either India or Pakistan out of his apprehensions regarding both democracy and communalism. Popular political forces led by Sheikh Abdullah wanted to join India on the other hand. 
• India, however, remained non-committal and left it to the people themselves to decide as was done in case of Junagarh and Hyderabad. Pakistan on the other disliked idea of plebiscite and launched an attack taking along several Pathan tribesmen in October 1947 and a panicked Hari Singh sought Indian military intervention. 
• India when consulted the then Governor General Mountbatten, was advised that India cannot intervene as per international law before a formal instrument of accession is not signed by Kashmir. As a result, Sheikh Abdulla was appointed administrator and India sent troops to valley capturing most of the part including Sri Nagar and fight ensued for other parts. 
• Fearing a full-fledged war, India referred the matter to UN for Pakistan's vacation of valley and restoration of peace on advice of Mountbatten which it later regretted. UK and US dominated security council sided Pakistan in highly partisan manner (as UK had a soft corner for Muslim League rather than Congress and US saw Pakistan as a buffer against rising Soviet Communism) and it came as a great shock to India. 
• Russia also didn't lend support to India at that time as it was not sure of India's credentials and saw India joining Commonwealth as indicator of India's imperialist bias. Ceasefire was declared on 31st December 1948 and Kashmir was virtually divided along ceasefire line which today is known as 'LoC'. 
• In 1951, the UN passed a resolution calling for a referendum subject to withdrawal of troops by Pakistan which never happened and hence plebiscite could also not happen. Later elections were held in Kashmir and Constituent Assembly was formed in Kashmir which also ratified the accession of Kashmir to India and hence rendered the very question of plebiscite irrelevant. 
• Pakistan continues to claim Kashmir as a part of it on the basis of two nation theory (which India never accepted as Pakistan is not the only home to Muslims of India), but India sees its accession as a testimony to its adherence to principle of secularism.
• Hyderabad was ruled by Nizam who was autocratic ruler. Indian government even made some concessions when it signed a standstill agreement hoping that Nizam will introduce a representative form of government. 
• But Nizamstarted to expand its military base on encouragement from Pakistan and wanted to take advantage of Indian engagements in Kashmir. Meanwhile, three important developments happened in the state. First, there was the rapid growth of a militant Muslim communal organization 'Ittihad ul Muslimin’ and its paramilitary wing 'Razakars'. Secondly, in on 7th August 1947, Hyderabad State Congress also launched a powerful Satyagraha demanding democratization. 
• It was ruthlessly suppressed by Nizam and Razakars and more than20,000 were imprisoned as well. Thirdly, peasants of the Telangana region led by Communist leadership defended the Razakar attacks and also attacked landlords and redistributed their land and peasants and landless. 
• All this led to the immense unpopularity of Nizam and the government of India became impatient and despite its continued efforts, Nizam dragged on his feet. Finally, the government of India launched a military operation in September 1948 and Hyderabad was acceded to India. Nizam was given favourable and generous treatment and he was made 'Rajpramukh' or nominal head and was even allowed to keep his enormous wealth and was also given a hefty Privy Purse amount. With the merger of Hyderabad, the merger of princely states with India was complete. 
• It was also a victory of Indian secularism as Muslims in significant numbers supported the cause of people both within and from outside the state.

The second stage and the difficult stage of integration of princely states started in December 1947. Many of the small states were merged together and five new unions were formed - Rajasthan, PEPSU (Patiala and East Punjab States Union), Travancore Cochin, Madhya Bharat and Saurashtra. Erstwhile rulers were given Privy Purse with the constitutional guarantee of it. Such concessions to erstwhile princes were criticized a lot, but they were a small cost of national integration and growth of democratic polity in pan-India. Further, it in some way compensated for the loss of territories to Pakistan as a result of partition.

• Another issue regarding integration was the presence of French and Portuguese settlements along with the coastal areas. Pondicherry a French settlement and Goa a Portuguese settlement were major ones. French were more reasonable and after due negotiations, they handed over the settlements to India in 1954. 
• Portuguese were more adamant and were supported by NATO allies like the US and UK who were miffed by Indian stand in East Asia. People of Goa protested, but they were suppressed. Seeing little international pressure over Portugal, the Indian government finally moved its army into Goa in 1961 and territorial and political integration of India was complete after 14 long years of efforts.

Communalism and Integrational Issues

Communalism in India was largely a result of the divide and rule policy of the British and it was later strengthened by the two-nation theory of Pakistan and hatred bred by it for all non-Muslims. It later gave birth to a counterforce in terms of ideas of a potential Hindu State.

• Partition triggered off a communal bomb which claimed more than 5 lakh lives, making it one of the greatest human tragedies and it once threatened the social and political fabric of newly independent nation. Bengal and Bihar were worst affected. 
• Gandhiji made extensive tours and urged both communities to placate their members. Government of India showed exemplary responsiveness and no measure was left unturned. Army was called in streets at time and national leadership itself came to fore. 
• Nehru used persuasions as well as threats in form of resignation. As a result, the situation was under control within a few months and minority Muslims were given a sense of reassurance. 
• Communalism further retreated with the death of Gandhiji who was mourned equally by both Hindus and Muslims and Nehru declared on All India radio that 'the light has gone out of our lives'. 

Some of RSS cadre even celebrated death of Gandhiji and RSS was banned which was however lifted in 1949 on the condition that RSS will limit itself to only cultural activities and not dabble into politics and will have a written constitution.

Communal riots were over, but not communalism as an ideology. Nehru made extensive public speeches and took active efforts to discourage it and even compared it with fascism. He even advocated a ban on political organization on the basis of religion and he was supported by Sardar Patel and Rajgopalachari as well.

• Next big challenge was rehabilitation of Hindu immigrants and refugees as fallout of communal riots in Pakistan. Challenge from East Bengal was greater as refugees continued to come for several years till 1971 due to intermittent riots. 
• While refugees in Punjab and UP etc were able to settle relatively easily as plenty of land was left by the emigrant Muslims in these areas, but it was not so in case of Bengal.
• Linguistic and cultural barriers also prevented refugees from East Pakistan to look beyond West Bengal and as a result the refugees were forced to abandon their traditional agriculture occupation and take to menial tasks in crowded urban and semi-urban areas leading to considerable impoverishment of once-prosperous Bengal.

Linguistic Issues and Consolidation challange 

The Official Language Controversy Back in the 1920s, the Indian National Congress - the main party of the freedom struggle - had promised that once the country won independence, each major linguistic group would have its province. However, after independence, the Congress did not take any steps to honour this promise in wake of horrors of partition and rising disruptive forces on parochial lines.

• In the debate in the constituent assembly over the issue of language, A compromise was finally arrived at: namely, that while Hindi would be the "official language" of India, English would be used in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another.
• The issue of language snowballed into one of the biggest issues threatening the socio-cultural integration. Language emerged as an emotive issue which people identified with their core cultural identities. 
• Language had other repercussions in form of promotion of culture, opportunities in government job and access to political power. Issue of language became a major one over two issues - one, controversy over declaration of official language and second, linguistic re-organization of states.
• Issue of 'official' language became one of Hindi and non-Hindi one. National leadership has already brushed aside the idea that one 'national' language is necessary for national unity and instead averred that India was a multi-lingual country and will remain so. 
• Constitutional has also de facto given many Indian languages the status of national languages through their inclusion in 8th schedule. Importance of local language in cultural and educational development was recognized way back from times of freedom struggle movement. 
• However, official work could not be carried in so many languages and therefore issue of selecting an official language arose and only English and Hindi were two viable options for their wide reach. 
• But English was already rejected during national movement for its foreign roots, a symbol of the raj and being the language of the oppressors who used it to exclude the masses. Gandhiji said, 'genius of a people couldn't unfold nor their culture flower in a foreign language'. 
• Though it was acknowledged as a world language and a window for scientific and other literature, it was acknowledge that it should not displace indigenous languages. Hindi or Hindustani (a language in Devnagri or Urdu script which evolved over time as a hybrid of many languages like Sanskrit, Urdu, Hindi, and Persian and so on) was an obvious choice as it had also played a mass mobilizing role during independence struggle as well. 
• Congress also promoted its maximum use in its meetings. So, in constitutional debates it was asked whether it should replace English and in how much time?

Partition changed the scenario and votaries of Hindi in Devnagri became vociferous and dubbed Hindustani in Urdu script a symbol of secession and partition. Even in vote in Congress, Hindi supporters won. Southern states saw adoption of Hindi as official language as detrimental to their interests as they considered it as a language with shallow history and literature. It was also viewed as putting them on back foot in matters of public employment and political partition. As a result, a compromise was arrived that Hindi was adopted only gradually and total transition from English to Hindi will happen in 1965. Further, the government in the meantime will encourage its use and a Joint Parliamentary Committee will periodically review its progress. It was hoped that with spread of education, Hindi will make its reach wider and hence resistance to it will decrease.

• However this didn't happen as 1965 approached. Further, non-Hindi speakers were also irritated by the fanatic zeal with which Hindi speakers tried to impose it on others rather than do it through mild persuasion. 
• They wasted their energies on strident propaganda rather than developing meaningful literature and arousing curiosity of others in the language. Further, Hindi protagonists didn't make any efforts in simplifying and standardizing the language to make it suitable for masses, but they instead sanskritised it on the name of maintaining purity of the language.
• After recommendation of Official Language Commission, 1956 that Hindi should progressively replace English by 1965 and consequent recommendation of a Joint Parliamentary Committee, president in 1960 announced a slew of measures to promote Hindi including a Central Hindi Directorate, translation of major works, laws etc in Hindi and so on. 
• This aroused suspicion among non-Hindi states and open opposition to Hindi emerged from non-Hindi areas. C Rajgopalachari, who headed 'Hindi Pracharini Sabha' of South before independence declared that 'Hindi is as foreign to non-Hindi speaking people as English to the protagonists of Hindi'. 
• Protagonists of Hindi on the other hand accused the government of dragging its feet over the issue and some like Dr Ram Manohar Lohiya and his party Samyukta Socialist Party and Jan Sangh launched militant movements for immediate imposition of Hindi as official language. 
• Nehru tried to assuage the fears of non-Hindi speaking areas by declaring in Parliament over and again that English will continue to be used so long as non-Hindi people wish it to and not as decided by Hindi speaking people. 
• Nehru wanted to make adoption of Hindi language as an official language as a gradual natural process and not the one which is bound by any deadline. 
• Parliament also passed 'Official Language Act, 1963' to allay the fears of non-Hindi regions as it had provisions that English will continue to remain an official language along with Hindi even beyond 1965 contrary to stipulated constitutional deadline of 1965. But all these measures didn't help. 
• Death of Nehru in 1964 and inept handling of the matter by Lal Bahdur Shastri further aggravated the situation. Even it was declared that Hindi will now be an alternative language in UPSC exams. Non- Hindi speakers perceived that it will put Hindi speakers in an undue advantageous position.

As 26th January approached near, atmosphere became tense and a strong anti-Hindi movement started brewing especially in Tamil Nadu. DMK called for observing 26th January as a day of mourning. Students groups actively agitated and soon the issue snowballed into violent protests. Four students even self-immolated and 2 cabinet ministers resigned. Indira Gandhi was minister of Information and Broadcasting at that time and she rushed to Madras amidst crisis and assured the agitators of a fair deal and as a result after deliberation in Congress, government revised its stand. 

• When Indira became PM in 1966, southern states were further reassured of safeguarding of their interests and Official Language Act 1963 was amended to suit their demands and it now unambiguously provided for continuation of English along with Hindi so long as non-Hindi areas wanted it. 
• Provision of using provincial language in UPSC was also made by parliament. A new three language formula was also promoted according to which non- Hindi area students were to compulsorily learn Hindi apart from English and their vernacular. Similarly, Hindi speaking students have to learn a non-Hindi language. 
• Since 1967, language is no longer a barrier to consolidation and has in fact helped in consolidation. Both English and Hindi have progressed well due to various factors and even government has made active efforts in promoting Hindi which has also borne fruits.

Linguistic Issues and Consolidation Challenge - Linguistic Re-Organization of States

• Language is not just a medium of communication, but a tool for socio-cultural development. During freedom struggle it was acknowledged that vernaculars are essential tools for mass mobilization and education of masses. 
• Administrative can be effective only if, it is conducted in the language that masses understand. So, even Congress started to promote working of its regional branches in vernaculars after 1919 and Gandhiji even proclaimed that 'redistribution of provinces on a linguistic basis was necessary if provincial languages were to grow to their full height’. 
• Thus, there was a strong case present for linguistic re-organization for effective administration and educational and cultural development of people. In fact after the Nagpur session of Congress in 1920 the principle was recognized as the basis of the reorganization of the Indian National Congress party itself. Many Provincial Congress Committees were created by linguistic zones, which did not follow the administrative divisions of British India.
• However, the agenda was not pursued so vigorously immediately post-independence as there were other more important issues were at hand in form of maintaining communal harmony, war with Pakistan over Kashmir, inclusion of princely states and so on. 
• Further, it was feared that linguistic re-organization may promote linguistic chauvinism and rivalry and vitiate the atmosphere which may prove counter-productive for national integration. 
• The need for postponement was also felt because the fate of the Princely States had not been decided. Also, the memory of partition was still fresh. It was also felt that this would draw attention away from other social and economic challenges that the country faced. The central leadership decided to postpone matters.
• For these reasons, first Justice Dhar Commission or Linguistic Provinces Commission of 1948 and another committee JVP Committee in the same year headed by Jawahar Lal, Vallabhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya advised against creation of states on linguistic lines and instead they recommended creation of states on the basis of administrative convenience for unity, security and economic development of the nation. 
• However, demand for linguistic reorganization of certain regions became vociferous and especially of a Telugu speaking region of Andhra out of Madras province. JVP report acknowledged this demand, but also highlighted that Madras city was a contentious area for the two sides.
• In a dramatic turn of events, in October 1952 a popular freedom fighter Patti Sriramalu died as a result of his 58 day long hunger strike in support of separate Andhra and rioting and protests ensued following which government hurriedly announced creation of Andhra on linguistic lines out of existing Madras province and Tamil Nadu was also created. 
• As a result of it, many other demands also made and government was forced to appoint 'State Reorganization Commission' headed by Faiz Ali, K M Panikkar and Hridyantah Kunzru in 1953 to look into the issue and it submitted its report in 1955. 
• It recommended that states should primarily be reorganized on linguistic lines and secondary only based on administrative convenience. It also recommended non-reorganization of Bombay and Punjab. 
• It drew some adverse reaction, but government implemented its recommendations with some modifications and brought 'State Reorganization Act, 1956'. It led to creation of 14 states and 6 UTs. Strong opposition was witnessed in Maharashtra and 80 people were killed in clashes. 
• The government decided to reorganize Bombay as Gujarat and Maharashtra with Bombay as centrally administered unit. But it too was opposed and finally after long tussle, Gujarat with Ahmadabad and Maharashtra with Bombay were formed in 1960.
• Punjab was reorganized later as an exception to the principle of linguistic re-organization as it was opined by many as rather organized on 'communal' basis with idea of separate Sikh area as central to its formation led by Akali Dal and Hindi region led by Jan Sangh. 
• The idea of separate states was already rejected in 1956 by State Reorganization Commission as well as national leadership as the deamnd was trying to camouflage communal intentions as linguistic ones. 
• When PEPSU was merged with Punjab in 1956 reorganization drive it included three different areas into it viz hilly, Punjabi speaking and Hindi speaking. Indira Gandhi finally conceded to the demand in November 1966 and Punjab and Haryana were created and some Pahari areas were merged with Himachal Pradesh. It also marked completion of state reorganization for the time being.

Contrary to apprehensions, state reorganization on linguistic lines didn't hamper the federal structure and unity of our nation and have instead helped in consolidating and integrating it. It has led to rationalization of the map which was arbitrarily drawn by the alien rulers as per their convenience and in order of their conquests of Indian regions. Language question could have posed difficult problems for its strong emotive quotientif it would have not been timely addressed. After reorganization, language issue has not been ever politicized significantly and has in fact promoted better administration in homogeneous political units in languages that masses understand.

Outcomes of linguistic re-organization -

1. The path to politics and power was now open to people other than the small English speaking elite.
2. Linguistic reorganization also gave some uniform basis to the drawing of state boundaries.
3. It did not lead to disintegration of the country as many had feared earlier. On the contrary it strengthened national unity. Above all, the linguistic states underlined the acceptance of the principle of diversity.
4. Gandhi on Linguistic Basis - "if linguistic provinces are formed, it will also give a fillip to the regional languages.

However certain issues still remained unresolved. The issue of minority languages still remains. Even in states which are created on linguistic lines, there are minorities in those states which speak different language and they don't speak the official language of the state. There is around 18% population which falls in this category and separate states cannot be created for such small communities. 

• To alley their apprehensions of development, constitution has also made certain provisions in form of Article 30 to establish and administrator educational institutions. A constitutional amendment was also made after 1956 re-organization that state should made adequate provision for the education of such minorities in their mother tongue. 
• It also provides for appointment of a 'Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities' to investigate and review the safeguards provided for such minorities. However, despite such measures ground reality is different and more so in case of tribal minority languages. Urdu, which is one of the biggest minority languages, has not been accorded status of official language in even single state except Jammu and Kashmir. 
• It also suffered because it was wrongfully associated with the communal question. In lack of official support, the language declined considerably, but still maintains a strong presence through newspapers, cinema and cultural activities.