Nuclear Vision of India | Science & Technology for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

• In 2018, India marked two significant anniversaries: 20 years since its 1998 nuclear tests, known as Operation Shakti–98, and 10 years since the signing of the India–U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement in 2008.
• On November 5, 2018, India declared its nuclear triad operational, a key component of its nuclear doctrine, following the successful completion of the first deterrence patrol by INS Arihant, an indigenous ballistic missile nuclear submarine.
• As of 2025, India's nuclear power generation capacity has increased to 8.18 GWe (Gigawatt Electricity), accounting for approximately 1.7% of the country's total electricity generation.
• India has set an ambitious target to expand its nuclear power capacity to 100 GWe by 2047. As of 2025, India is constructing multiple reactors, including units at Kudankulam and Rajasthan, aiming to significantly boost its nuclear capacity.
• India's nuclear power program remains primarily indigenous, managed by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL), a state-owned enterprise established in 1987.
• India continues to remain outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) framework due to its nuclear weapons program, which led to its exclusion from nuclear trade for 34 years, significantly hindering the development of its civil nuclear energy sector until the signing of the India–U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement in 2008.
• To overcome previous trade restrictions and domestic uranium shortages, India is advancing a nuclear fuel cycle emphasizing the use of its abundant thorium reserves, while also investing in fast breeder reactors like the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), which is expected to be operational by the end of 2025.

India’s Nuclear Energy Program

• Nuclear energy has been a focal point for India since the 1950s, spearheaded by the visionary Homi Bhabha, who laid the groundwork for a three-stage nuclear power program.
• The Atomic Energy Act of 1962 was a pivotal moment, aiming to harness the potential of Uranium and Thorium as nuclear fuels for Indian reactors.
• India boasts significant natural reserves of these elements, with approximately 70,000 tonnes of Uranium and 360,000 tonnes of Thorium readily available.

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Current Status of Nuclear Energy in India

• As of 2025, India has 22 operational nuclear reactors, contributing to a total installed nuclear capacity of 8,180 MW.
• The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is the primary entity responsible for operating these reactors.
• The government is actively working to expand this capacity, with plans to increase it to 22,480 MW by 2031-2032.

Research and Development in Nuclear Technology

• India is not just focusing on current technologies but is also investing in advanced research for fast-breeder reactors and thorium-based reactors.
• The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) are at the forefront of this research, aiming to develop safer and more efficient nuclear technologies.
• In 2025, India and France signed a declaration to form a partnership focused on the development of advanced and small modular nuclear reactors.

Safety and Regulatory Framework

• The Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority (NSRA) was established to ensure the safety and security of nuclear installations.
• The NSRA sets stringent safety standards and conducts regular inspections to mitigate risks associated with nuclear energy.

Future Prospects

• With the growing demand for clean and sustainable energy, nuclear power is expected to play a crucial role in India’s energy mix.
• The government is also exploring international collaborations to enhance technology transfer and investment in the nuclear sector.

Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme in India

First Stage: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR)

• Fuel and Moderator: Uses Natural UO₂ as the fuel matrix and heavy water (D₂O) as both the moderator and coolant.
• Initial Plants: The first two plants were boiling water reactors using imported technology. Subsequent plants are of the PHWR type, developed through India’s own research and development.
• Self-Reliance: India has achieved complete self-reliance in PHWR technology, which is now in the industrial sector.
• Future Plans: Development of VVER type reactors, the Russian version of Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR), to enhance power generation.
• MOX Fuel: Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX) has been developed and introduced at Tarapur to conserve fuel and advance new fuel technology.

Second Stage: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR)

• Fuel Core: Uses plutonium-239 (Pu-239) obtained from the first stage reactors as the fuel core.

Third Stage: Breeder Reactors using U-233 Fuel

• Fuel: Uses uranium-233 (U-233) as the fuel in breeder reactors.

Planned Nuclear Plants in India

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Challenges

• The real concerns surrounding nuclear technology are primarily about safety and waste management. Major incidents like Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and Fukushima have raised significant alarms.
• Completely abandoning nuclear power due to accident fears would be imprudent. When nuclear energy is generated under strict safety standards, the risk of severe accidents is greatly diminished.
• Acquiring land and choosing suitable locations for Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) is a considerable challenge in India. For example, the Kudankulam plant in Tamil Nadu and the Kovvada plant in Andhra Pradesh have encountered numerous delays related to land acquisition issues.
• India’s status as a non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) means it is a non-participatory member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), affecting its nuclear trade relationships. This situation changed after the 2009 waiver and various bilateral civil nuclear agreements with different countries.
• India must improve its reprocessing and enrichment capabilities, which require advanced technology to maximize the use of spent fuel and enhance enrichment capacity.
• Regarding infrastructure and workforce needs, India has made notable progress in developing industrial capabilities to produce equipment and train skilled workers. Many universities and institutes play a crucial role in supplying engineering talent for NPPs.

Recommendations for Nuclear Power Safety

• Maintain Skills and Regulations: It is crucial to consistently uphold the necessary skills, enforce effective safety regulations, and advance waste disposal and management facilities for nuclear power.
• Strengthen Non-Proliferation Agreements: Continued support and strengthening of international non-proliferation agreements are essential to ensure the safety and security of nuclear power.

Nuclear Tests and Nuclear Doctrine

• India's Nuclear Doctrine: In 2003, India established its Nuclear Doctrine of 'No First Use,' committing to use nuclear weapons only in response to a nuclear attack on its territory.
• 1965 Proposal to the UN:India, along with countries in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), proposed five points to the UN Disarmament Commission to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, including:
  • Not transferring nuclear technology to other nations.
  • Avoiding the use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear countries.
  • Providing security assurances to non-nuclear states from the United Nations.
  • Pursuing nuclear disarmament.
  • Implementing a ban on nuclear tests.
• Smiling Buddha Test: India conducted its first nuclear test, codenamed "Smiling Buddha," in Pokhran in May 1974.
• Pokhran-II Tests: Between 11 and 13 May 1998, India conducted five nuclear tests as part of the Pokhran-II series, known as Operation Shakti–98.
• Nuclear Warhead Estimates:. 2018 report by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) estimated Pakistan to have 140-150 nuclear warheads and India to have 130-140 warheads.
• Pakistan's Nuclear Doctrine: Pakistan has not publicly declared a "no first use" policy, and little is known about the specifics of its nuclear doctrine.

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India’s Position on Various Nuclear Treaties

• Limited Test Ban Treaty: This treaty, signed in 1963 by the US, UK, and USSR, allows nuclear tests only underground and prohibits testing on the surface, underwater, or in outer space. India has ratified this treaty as well.
• Treaty on Outer Space: Signed in 1967, this treaty prohibits countries from testing nuclear weapons in space or on celestial bodies such as the moon.
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): This treaty, signed in 1968 and effective from 1970 with 190 member states, requires countries to give up current or future nuclear weapons plans in exchange for access to peaceful nuclear energy.
• The NPT has three main objectives:
• Non-proliferation: Preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.
• Disarmament: Reducing and eliminating nuclear arsenals.
• Peaceful use of nuclear technology: Ensuring the right to use nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.
• India’s Status: India is one of five countries that either did not sign the NPT or signed and later withdrew, joining Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and South Sudan.