Dichotomy & Dualism | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• As a discipline evolves, it naturally experiences debates and discussions where various scholars present their views on different interpretations and approaches. In Geography, these debates have often revolved around the focus on Physical or Human Geography and the methodologies to be adopted.
• From its inception, Modern Geography has been characterized by the concepts of dichotomy and dualism. Although these terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings and implications. Dichotomy refers to the contrast or difference between two ideas, suggesting a division in the subject matter. On the other hand, dualism represents a debate on a particular subject matter, involving two parallel ideas with the same goal but distinct characteristics.
• Dualism is a defining feature of social philosophy and environmental thought. Consequently, numerous dualistic ideologies have emerged in the field of geographical learning, largely influenced by environmental philosophy and dichotomous perceptions.

In summary, the development of Geography as a discipline has been marked by debates and discussions, with dichotomy and dualism playing significant roles in shaping the field's evolution. These concepts have contributed to the emergence of various ideologies and approaches within geographical learning, resulting in a rich and diverse body of knowledge.

Historical Perspective of Dichotomy and Dualism

Historically, geography has experienced various divisions and dichotomies, which have shaped the discipline and led to ongoing debates. Varenius, an early geographer, divided geography into General Geography (e.g., a generalized study of mountains and plains) and Special Geography (e.g., a study of specific regions like the Himalayas and the Ganges River). This division was further expanded upon by Kant, who categorized geography into five branches, emphasizing the importance of Special Geography and promoting a systematic analysis approach.

• The emergence of geographers Humboldt and Ritter led to a clear distinction in geographical methodology, with Humboldt advocating for a systematic approach and Ritter supporting a regional approach. This created a methodological dividing line, known as the dichotomy of geography.
• Another division in the subject matter arose with Ratzel, who disagreed with the idea that physical geography was general geography. He instead introduced human geography as a new branch, leading to a dichotomy between physical and human geography.
• The French school of Geography brought forth another division, this time between Environmentalism and Possibilism. American geographers like Semple focused on Environmentalism, while French geographers emphasized Possibilism. These divisions resulted in three main dichotomies in geography: systematic vs. regional geography, physical vs. human geography, and environmentalism vs. possibilism.
• Many geographers began advocating for a unitary approach in response to these divisions, giving rise to the concept of dualism. Dualism encourages discussion and debate while opposing the division of geography. Geographers like OHK Spate, Dudley Stamp, and Griffith Taylor strongly supported an integrated geography.
• The rise of positivism and critical revolution in American geography promoted a more theoretical and realistic approach. Positivism refers to the application of scientific laws, theories, and mathematical models to geography, while the realistic approach was further strengthened in the 1970s by the critical revolution.
• Present-day geography places greater emphasis on human aspects, not as a preference for human geography, but due to the need for geography to remain relevant among applied subjects. The focus is on welfare geography, with the goal of serving society and improving people's lives. As a result, traditional geography has been somewhat marginalized, while new concerns have emerged in modern human geography.

In conclusion, although there have been significant changes in the methodology and subject matter of geography, the dualistic debate continues to be an important part of the discipline. The dichotomy may not be as crucial in present-day geography, but dualism remains a significant aspect that drives discussion and development within the field.

Types of Dichotomy/Dualism

The American school of geography has identified six types of dualism in the field:

1. General Geography vs. Special Geography
2. Systematic vs. Regional Geography
3. Physical vs. Human Geography
4. Determinism vs. Possibilism
5. Theoretical vs. Applied Geography
6. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Geography

The first four types of dualism have clear conceptual divisions, which have led to dichotomy in geography, while the last two types emerged after World War II and are more a result of the evolving needs of society. These six types of dualism have not threatened the discipline but rather promoted healthy discussions and debates, enriching the field. Present-day geography relies heavily on these dualistic debates.

General Geography vs. Special Geography

• This type of dualism includes Systematic vs. Regional Geography and was initiated by Varenius, a German geographer, in the 17th century. Varenius recognized two main divisions of geography: general or universal, and special or particular. General geography deals with the entire world as a single unit and is mostly focused on physical geography, which can be understood through natural laws, such as plate tectonics. In contrast, special geography focuses on individual countries and world regions, like the Himalayas or the Alps.
• Since human behavior is unpredictable, it is difficult to establish laws in special geography. However, special geography has helped formulate hypotheses and structured ideas. A similar view was given by Immanuel Kant, but this division was not inherited by Humboldt and Ritter, who are considered the founding fathers of modern geography. They emphasized more on physical geography/general geography rather than special geography, leading to a new type of dualism: systematic vs. regional approach in geography.
• Humboldt focused on developing systematic physical geography, while Ritter was a regional geographer who considered humans as an essential component of physical surroundings. Systematic geography seeks universal and generic concepts, whereas regional geography remains within the scope of particular studies. Humboldt believed that geographical facts cannot be discussed in isolation, and every subject matter is related to some other aspects of the earth system. As a result, regional accounts also require a geographical introduction of their contents.
• On the other hand, Ritter emphasized the need to study natural phenomena as a whole and in parts to understand the inherent plan. He believed that regional geography is central to the discipline and that there are regions at different levels, such as macro regions, meso regions, and micro regions. This type of work is still relevant today, as regional planning and development strategies are adopted to focus on specific areas rather than the entire country.
• Some geographers, like Richthofen and Hettner, attempted to reduce the differences between systematic and regional approaches, arguing that there is no real difference between the two. They believed that every systematic approach must be carried out at a regional level and that every regional account provides a systematic discussion of related facts and figures. In the words of Berry, "The regional and general geography are not different approaches but are just two extremes of a continuum."

In conclusion, the dichotomy between systematic and regional approaches in geography does not oppose but rather supports each other in the final analysis of the subject matter. This dualism has contributed to the development and enrichment of the field of geography.

Physical Geography vs. Human Geography

• The Greeks were likely the first to differentiate between Physical and Human Geography as distinct branches within the discipline. While Hecateus focused more on Physical Geography, both Herodotus and Strabo emphasized the human aspect. During the medieval period, Al Beruni was the only prominent human geographer, with others mainly focusing on Physical Geography. This dualism remains a characteristic of the discipline today.
• In modern times, Varenius was the first to suggest differences between the characteristics of Physical and Human Geography. Initially, Physical Geography was the core concern of the discipline, and it was further developed by Humboldt. Both Humboldt and Ritter studied human beings within the context of Physical Geography. Ritter even wrote a book titled "Erd Kunde," where he discussed German society as merely one of the living species.
• While Humboldt was primarily interested in Physical Geography, Ritter leaned more towards Human Geography. There was a shift in approach as Ratzelian Philosophy gained more support, and Human Geography became more widely accepted. Ratzel, influenced by Social Darwinism, believed that human beings should not be studied as part of the natural selection process. Instead, he argued that humans are physically and socially distinct species, and therefore their geographical study requires a separate branch of Geography. This led to the emergence of Human Geography.
• Ratzel introduced Human Geography through his three-volume book "Anthropogeographie." At the time, most German geographers were general geographers, but their focus was primarily on physical geography. This led to a clear division between physical and human geographers in Germany. This division had a significant impact on the development of geography as a discipline in the USA, UK, and France.

American school of Geography

• The American school of Geography initially focused on physical geography before the influence of the Ratzelian school of thought. Early American geographers, such as Guyot, who was the first professor of Geography in the USA, W.M. Davis, Salsbury, and Thornbury, played crucial roles in developing the field, with a particular emphasis on landforms. Trewartha, on the other hand, focused on climatology.
• Up until the early 20th century, American Geography was predominantly concerned with physical geography. This changed with the work of Semple, who published her book "Influences of Geographic Environment" in 1911. Although she was an environmentalist, her approach centered on human aspects, such as settlement, activities, population growth, migration, and other related factors.
• Following a similar approach, Huntington contributed to the division of American Geography into physical and human geography after World War I. Some geographers, like Salsbury, shifted their academic interests and eventually became human geographers. After World War II, the division between physical and human geography continued in the United States, ultimately benefiting the discipline as a whole.
• In contemporary American Geography education, an integrated approach is adopted at the college level, whereas a more specialized division exists at the university level. This trend towards specialization has enhanced the applied importance of Geography in various fields.

British school of Geography

• From the very beginning, British geographers have placed significant emphasis on both the branches of geography. Geographers such as Herbertson, Dudley Stamp, Griffith Taylor, and O.H.K Spate adopted an integrated approach to the subject. However, with the rise of Mackinder in British geography, the focus shifted predominantly towards human geography.
• Mackinder supported Vidal de la Blache's position that human geography is a general geography and embraced the concept of possibilism. This had a considerable impact on British geography, leading to the establishment of many university departments dedicated to human geography. The influence of this approach soon spread to other countries, with the first department of human geography being established in 1919 by Dudley Stamp in Yangon (formerly Rangoon). 
• This was followed by the establishment of similar departments in Lahore, Karachi, Aligarh, and Chennai. Mackinder himself established the Department of Human Geography at Delhi University.

French School of Geography

• In French schools, there is a significant divide when it comes to the subject of geography. This divide revolves around the issue of whether to focus on physical or human geography. Human geography is the predominant focus in France, with physical geography often being sidelined.
• The French School of Human Geography, led by Vidal de la Blache, is considered the founding school for the subject. Vidal de la Blache is highly regarded for his role in shaping the study of human geography. On the other hand, Physical Geography was championed by De Mortonne, who sought to promote the subject within France through his book, "French Alps," which focused on glaciated landforms.

In summary, the French School of Geography is divided between those who support a focus on human geography, led by Vidal de la Blache, and those who advocate for the study of physical geography, led by De Mortonne. Despite this divide, human geography remains the dominant focus in French schools.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Dichotomy & Dualism

What is the difference between dichotomy and dualism in geography?

Dichotomy refers to the contrast or difference between two ideas, suggesting a division in the subject matter. On the other hand, dualism represents a debate on a particular subject matter, involving two parallel ideas with the same goal but distinct characteristics.

What are the six types of dualism identified by the American school of geography?

The six types of dualism are: General Geography vs. Special Geography, Systematic vs. Regional Geography, Physical vs. Human Geography, Determinism vs. Possibilism, Theoretical vs. Applied Geography, and Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Geography.

How did the division between Physical and Human Geography begin?

The division between Physical and Human Geography began with the Greeks, who differentiated between them as distinct branches within the discipline. In modern times, this division was further emphasized by Ratzel, who introduced Human Geography as a new branch, separate from Physical Geography.

What are the differences between the American, British, and French schools of geography?

The American school of geography initially focused on physical geography before shifting to human geography, while the British school placed significant emphasis on both branches, with an integrated approach. In contrast, the French school is predominantly focused on human geography, with physical geography often being sidelined.

How has the debate between dualism and dichotomy influenced the development of geography as a discipline?

The debate between dualism and dichotomy has led to the emergence of various ideologies and approaches within geographical learning, resulting in a rich and diverse body of knowledge. These debates have also promoted healthy discussions and increased the applied importance of geography in various fields.