Evolution of Indian Administration - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• The administrative system in India has a rich history that dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization, which existed over 5000 years ago. During this time, the king held immense power and was responsible for overseeing all aspects of the kingdom. He was supported by a council of ministers, officers, and other functionaries, which meant that the administration was heavily centralized around the institution of the king.
• Following this period was the Vedic era, during which the early Vedic Aryans were organized into tribes rather than kingdoms. The leader of a tribe was known as the 'Rajan,' and their primary responsibility was to protect the tribe. In order to carry out this duty, the Rajan was assisted by various officials, such as the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys), and spash (spies).
• The administrative systems became more structured and organized with the rise of the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties. Both of these dynasties implemented sophisticated governmental machinery that facilitated the efficient execution of state functions. This discussion will provide a brief overview of the evolution of ancient administrative systems in India, focusing on the changes that took place during the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties.

Evolution of Ancient Indian Administration

• The Vedic period, also known as the Vedic age, spanned from approximately 1500 to 500 BCE and was named after the Vedas, the sacred texts of ancient India. During this period, the early Aryan society was organized into tribes rather than formal kingdoms. The leader of each tribe was called the 'Rajan,' whose primary responsibility was to protect the tribe. The Rajan was supported by various officials, such as the purohita (chaplain), senani (army chief), dutas (envoys), and spash (spies).
• The Rajan's authority was limited by tribal councils called 'sabha' and 'samiti.' Historian and Indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham suggests that the sabha was a gathering of important tribal members, while the samiti was an assembly of all free tribesmen. These councils played a role in governing the tribe, and the Rajan could not assume power without their approval.
• In the later Vedic period, tribes began to form small kingdoms with a capital and basic administrative structure. The Rajan, now seen as the guardian of social order and the protector of the 'rashtra' (polity), became more powerful. The concept of hereditary kingship started to develop, and rituals of the time elevated the status of the King above his people. Occasionally, the King was referred to as 'samrat,' which means supreme ruler.

Governance in Vedic Period

• The increasing political power of the Rajan allowed him to gain more control over resources, transforming voluntary gift offerings (bali) into compulsory tributes. Although the Sabha and Samiti still existed, their influence waned due to the Rajan's growing power. By the end of the later Vedic age, various political systems such as monarchical states (rajya), oligarchic states (gana or sangha), and tribal principalities began to emerge.
• The economy during the Vedic period relied on a mix of pastoralist and agricultural lifestyles. Economic exchanges were conducted through gift-giving, especially to chiefs and priests, and a barter system using cattle as a unit of currency. The shift from a semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to increased trade and competition for resources. Agriculture became the dominant economic activity in the Ganges valley, with agricultural operations growing in complexity and the use of iron implements rising. In addition to copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts mention the use of tin, lead, and silver. Wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated, and new crafts and occupations emerged, such as carpentry, leatherwork, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewelry, dying, and wine-making.
• Romila Thapar describes the state formation during the Vedic era as being in a state of "arrested development," because chiefs were relatively autonomous and controlled surplus wealth that could have been used for state-building. Instead, this wealth was directed towards increasingly elaborate rituals. The period of the Upanishads, the final phase of the Vedic era, coincided with new state formations and the beginning of urbanization in the Ganges Valley. Population growth and expanding trade networks led to social and economic changes that challenged traditional ways of life, marking the end of the Vedic period and setting the stage for urbanization.
• By the time the Mauryan dynasty came to power, Kautilya's treatise, the Arthashastra, had become a comprehensive work on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. Kautilya was a scholar at Takshashila University and served as the teacher and guardian of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The Indian administration system was well-developed, and Kautilya's treatise provides the earliest detailed account of it.
• The Mauryan Period marked a significant advancement in Indian administration. Decentralization was widespread, with village units playing a crucial role in grassroots administration. The empire was divided into provinces, which were further divided into districts and then into rural and urban centers for efficient administration.

• A detailed account of the administrative system in Mauryan period is given below.

Mauryan Administrative System

• The Mauryan Empire marked a significant period in Indian history, as it introduced a new era of political and administrative organization. The empire was divided into four provinces, each with its own capital: Tosali in the east, Ujjayain in the west, Suvarnagiri in the south, and Taxila in the north. The central capital was Patliputra.
• The Mauryan administrative system was well-organized and comprehensive. It included various levels of administration, such as central, provincial, local, revenue, judicial, and military. Each of these administrative structures played a crucial role in the governance of the empire.
• Starting with the central administration, it was directly overseen by the king. This level of administration was responsible for implementing the king's policies and ensuring the smooth functioning of the empire. The provincial administration was responsible for governing the four provinces and maintaining order within their territories.
• The local administration managed the affairs of the towns and villages within each province. This included overseeing public works projects, maintaining law and order, and collecting taxes. The revenue administration was responsible for the collection of taxes and other financial matters. This branch ensured that the empire's finances were in order and that funds were appropriately allocated.
• The judicial administration dealt with legal matters and the enforcement of laws. It ensured that justice was served and that disputes were resolved in a fair and timely manner. Finally, the military administration was responsible for the defense and security of the empire. This branch was responsible for maintaining a strong and well-equipped army to protect the empire's borders and maintain internal stability.

In summary, the Mauryan administrative system was a highly organized and efficient structure that facilitated the effective governance of the vast empire. Each level of administration played a crucial role in maintaining order and ensuring the smooth functioning of the empire.

Central Administration

• The King held the highest authority in the Mauryan Empire's administration, possessing supreme executive, legislative, and judicial powers. He was responsible for the kingdom's safety and security, and he determined the overall policies to be followed by all officials. The King appointed ministers and other officers of the royal administration and served as the supreme commander of the army and head of the entire military.
• The Mauryan Empire (before Ashoka) was primarily a Hindu State. As per the Hindu concept, the ultimate sovereign of the State was 'Dharma' or law, and the King served as its guardian. Consequently, the King could not defy the laws. He was supported and advised by a 'Mantri Parishad' (Council of Ministers), which guided him in the day-to-day administration. This guidance became crucial during emergencies such as wars, natural disasters, or health epidemics. The King was heavily influenced by the Brahmins and sought their support rather than disobeying them.
• The Mauryan government's decentralized nature allowed the provincial governor and provincial ministers the right to be consulted by the King, particularly in provincial matters. The Council of Ministers' size varied, and ministers were required to demonstrate their competence, particularly in religion and finance. In emergencies, the King was expected to follow the Council of Ministers' majority decision.
• The administration system also included a well-organized hierarchy of bureaucrats who managed executive, judicial, and revenue offices. The system was divided into departments, each led by a Superintendent, known as 'Adhyaksha.' The Adhyaksha was assisted by clerks, accountants, and spies. There were also two high-ranking officials: the 'Samaharta' and the 'Sannidhata.' The Samaharta served as the collector general of revenue for the Mauryan Empire, overseeing both collection and expenditure. The Sannidhata was the officer in charge of the treasury and store. Other officers included the Army Minister, Chief Priest, and Governor of Forts.

Provincial Administration

The entire Empire was divided into two parts:
(i) The kingdom that was under the direct rule of the King, and
(ii) The vassal states

The Mauryan territory that was directly ruled by the King was divided into a number of provinces called ‘Janapadas.’ Ashoka had five provinces with capitals namely Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, and Pataliputra. Each province was subdivided into a number of districts and each district was again subdivided into a number of units.

However, in addition to these centrally ruled Mauryan territories, there were vassal states. They enjoyed a great deal of autonomy.

The provincial administration worked on similar lines of the central administration. The Mauryan Emperor directly ruled the central and eastern parts of the Empire. The other areas were ruled by the provincial Governors. The provincial Governors were responsible for day-to-day conduct of administration of provinces. They were expected to consult on important matters. (the central administration). There were also the district officers, reporters, clerks, who helped in the smooth running of provincial administration.

Local Administration

• The district administration was in the charge of ‘Rajukas’, whose position and functions are similar to today’s district collectors. He was assisted by ‘Yuktas’ or subordinate officials. In the urban was, there was a Municipal Board with 30 members. There were six committees with five Board members in each to manage the administration of cities. The six committees were:
  (i) Committee on Industrial Arts
  (ii) Committee on Foreigners
  (iii) Committee on Registration of Births and Deaths
  (iv) Committee on Trade and Commerce
  (v) Committee on Supervision of Manufacturers
  (vi) Committee on Collection of Excise and Custom Duties
• Village administration was in the hands of ‘Gramani’ and his superior was called ‘Gopa,’ who was incharge of ten to fifteen villages. Census was a regular activity and the village officials were to number the people along with other details such as their castes and occupations. They were also to count the animals in each house.
• Census in towns was conducted by municipal officials, especially to track the movements of both foreign and indigenous population. The data collected were cross checked by the spies. Census appears to have become a permanent institution during the administration of the Mauryas.

Revenue Administration

Kautilya laid greater stress on treasury, as smooth and successful functioning of administration depended on it. Main sources of income were land revenue, taxation, and rent. Land revenue was 1/6 of the total produce, yet in reality much higher proportion was charged, as per the economic and local conditions of the farmers. In addition to land revenue, there were excise duty, forest tax, water tax, taxes on mines, tax on coinage etc., as other sources of revenue. Much of the Mauryan revenue was expended on paying the army, the officials of the royal government, charities, and different public works like irrigation projects, road construction etc.

IGovernance in Mauryan Times

Judicial Administration

• The King served as the head of the judiciary during the Mauryan Empire. As the highest court of appeal, the King personally heard appeals from the people. However, due to the vast size of the empire, it was not feasible for the King to attend to every case. Therefore, he appointed judges to handle regular cases. During Ashoka's reign, several judicial reforms were introduced, such as the granting of pardons.
• The Supreme Court was situated in the capital, with the Chief Justice referred to as 'Dharmathikarin.' Subordinate courts, overseen by 'Amatyas,' were established in provincial capitals and districts. In villages and towns, cases were resolved by the 'Gramavradha' and 'Nagaravyavaharikamahamatra,' respectively.
• Punishments varied, including fines, imprisonment, mutilation, and death. Police stations were present in all major urban areas. Both Kautilya and Ashoka's edicts reference jails and jail officials, emphasizing the importance of not punishing innocent individuals. Ashoka appointed a unique group of officers, known as the Dhamma Mahamatras, to ensure this. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions.

Military Administration

• The King was the supreme commander of the military. The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of a ‘Senapati.’ As per Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephants, and eight thousands chariots.
• There was a Board of 30 members to look into matters pertaining to war. These members were placed in six committees with five members in each. These committees were responsible to manage the following wings of the military:
  (i) Navy
  (ii) Transport and Supply
  (iii) Infantry
  (iv) Cavalry
  (v) War Chariots
  (vi) War Elephants
• Each of the above wings was under the control of ‘Adhyaksha’ or Superintendents.
• The Mauryan Empire had the privilege of having successful administrators such as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. The administration of the Empire was decentralized and the administrative powers were divided into administrative units. However, these units were under a rigid central control.
• Ashoka introduced innovations and reforms in the Mauryan administrative system.
• He improved the functioning of the executive, legislature, and judiciary. He introduced reforms in the provincial administration. He appointed many officials to look into the tasks of public welfare. Ashoka appointed a special class of officers known, as the Dhamma Mahamatras to look after the material and spiritual well being of the people. These persons were to spread the gospel of Dhamma.

Activity

Let us know about your view points on the similarities and differences between Mauryan administrative system and contemporary administration of today.

Administrative System during Gupta Period

• The administrative system during the Gupta dynasty was found more or less similar to that of the Mauryan Empire. At the time of the Gupta rule, there was political harmony in ancient India. During this period, the Empire was classified into administrative divisions like Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala. This denotes the importance being given to administrative decentralization. The administrative divisions helped the rulers to systematically control their territories.
• The period of Gupta’s has been described, as the golden age in ancient India.
• There was consolidation of northern India under one political umbrella, which ushered in an era of orderly growth and development.

We will discuss Gupta administration under the following headings:

Central Administration

• During the Gupta Age, the government was a benevolent monarchy, with the king holding the highest authority and possessing extensive powers for the smooth functioning of the empire. Kings adopted grand titles like Parameshvara, Maharajadhiraja, and Parambhattaraka, and were considered divine, adding to their power and prestige. Despite their vast powers, Gupta kings did not rule in a tyrannical manner and were expected to follow the principles of 'Rajya Dharma.'
• The king was assisted by a council of ministers, known as the Mantri Parishad, which included the Prime Minister (Mantri Mukhya) and other officials responsible for various areas such as military affairs, law and order, and more. These officials were known as Mahasandhi Vigrahaka, Amatya, Mahabaladhikrita, and Mahadandnayaka. Decisions were made collectively by the king and his ministers, with the king respecting their opinions.
• Gupta kings appointed governors, military, and civil officials who were responsible to the king, and conferred honors and titles. As the custodian of all land in the empire, the king oversaw the construction of dams, the administration of justice, the collection of taxes, and the provision of shelter for the needy. To stay informed about the social and economic life of their subjects, Gupta kings frequently toured their country, always prioritizing their people's well-being.

Provincial Administration

The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The Empire was divided into divisions called ‘Bhukth’ and each Bhukti was placed under the charge of an ‘Uparika.’ The Bhuktis were divided into districts or Vishayas and each Vishaya was under a Vishayapati. The Vishayapatis were generally  members of royal family. They were assisted in the work by a council of representatives.

Local Administration

• The local administration of the city was managed by a Parishad, with its leader referred to as NagaraRakshaka. Another officer, called the Purapala Uparika, supervised the NagaraRakshaka. In addition, there was a special officer known as Avasthika, who served as the Superintendent of Dharamsalas (rest houses).
• Significant attention was given to professional organizations during this period. Artisans, merchants, and bankers formed their own guilds and were responsible for managing their respective affairs. The guild merchants, in particular, were in charge of overseeing trade within the cities.
• The village represented the smallest administrative unit. The village head, known as Gramika, was supported by other officials, such as Dutas (messengers), headmen, and Kartri. The Gramika was also assisted by a village assembly. During the Gupta period, rural bodies like Panchayats were responsible for the welfare of the villagers. These rural bodies consisted of the village headman and the village elders. This demonstrates that the Gupta administration encouraged local participation at all levels of governance.

Revenue Administration

• Revenue administration played a crucial role in the functioning of the Gupta Empire, with various officials responsible for its proper management. These officials included Viniyuktaka, Rajuka, Uparika, and Dashparadhika, among others. Their primary responsibility was to ensure the collection of taxes and other forms of revenue for the empire.
• Land revenue was the most significant source of income for the Gupta Empire. It was typically set at one-sixth of the total produce, and the majority of the revenue collected was used for public welfare purposes. Land tax was imposed on cultivators who did not possess land rights, ensuring that the empire received income from various sources.
• Apart from land revenue, the Gupta Empire had several other sources of income. These included income tax (known as Bhaga), custom duty, mint duty, inheritance tax, and gift tax. Furthermore, fines such as Dasaparadha were imposed on offenders, contributing to the empire's revenue.
• Salaries during the Gupta Empire were often paid in the form of land grants rather than cash. These land grants provided beneficiaries with hereditary rights over the land, although the King retained the power to reclaim the land if necessary. Lands granted to Brahmins were exempt from tax, further highlighting the importance of land in the Gupta Empire's revenue administration.
• The Gupta rulers also focused on improving agricultural production by promoting irrigation facilities and ensuring that waste lands were brought under cultivation. Pasture lands were protected, ensuring the welfare of both the people and the land itself.

In conclusion, revenue administration was a critical aspect of the Gupta Empire's governance, with land revenue being the primary source of income. The empire utilized various taxes and fines to generate revenue, which was used for public welfare and maintaining the stability of the empire. The Gupta rulers' emphasis on efficient land management and agricultural improvements also contributed to the prosperity and longevity of their rule.

Judicial Administration

• Judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times. Several books on law were compiled during this period and for the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery came under criminal law and disputes regarding various types of property came under civil law. Elaborate laws were laid down regarding inheritance.
• It was the duty of the King to uphold the law and deal with legal cases with the help of Brahman priests, judges, and ministers. The decision or the judgment of the court was based on legal texts, social customs prevailing during those times, and discretion of the King. King was the highest court of appeal.  The guilds of artisans, merchants, and others were governed by their own laws.
• At the lowest level of the judicial system was the village assembly or trade guild.
• These were the village councils, which were appointed to settle the disputes between the parties that appeared before them. It is believed that mild punishments were awarded to the guilty persons.

Military Administration

• The Gupta Empire was known for its powerful and expansive military, which included a standing army. The use of cavalry and horse archery was prevalent during this time. The empire's territories were closely monitored and guarded by military officers, who held titles such as Senapati, Mahasenapati, Baladhikrita, Mahabaladhikrita, Dandanayaka, Sandhivigrahika, and Mahasandhivigrahika. These officers played crucial roles in managing the military administration.
• The Gupta military was organized into four main divisions: the intelligence wing, the cavalry wing, the elephant wing, and the navy. The primary weapons used by the soldiers were bows and arrows, swords, axes, and spears.

Trade and Business
The Gupta Empire engaged in trade with various countries, including China, Ceylon, several European nations, and the East Indian islands. This international trade contributed significantly to the empire's economic and strategic strength, allowing it to annex new territories and expand its borders.

Comparative Analysis Activity
Consider the similarities and differences between the administrative systems of the Gupta Empire and those of today's contemporary administrations. Share your thoughts and opinions on this topic.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the ancient Indian administration systems under the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties were characterized by a centralized monarchy, with the king being the supreme authority, while at the same time promoting decentralization through provincial and local administrative divisions. Both dynasties had well-organized structures for central, provincial, and local administration, revenue administration, judicial administration, and military administration. The rulers of these dynasties were known for their benevolence and concern for the welfare of their subjects, and they introduced innovations and reforms in the administrative system. The ancient Indian administrative systems laid the foundation for the contemporary administration in India, with certain similarities and differences in terms of structure, functions, and principles. Overall, the ancient administrative systems of India reflect the rich and diverse history of the country and its evolution over time.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Evolution of Indian Administration

What was the role of the Rajan in the Vedic period of ancient Indian administration?

The chief of a tribe during the Vedic period was called 'Rajan,' whose main responsibility was to protect the tribe. The Rajan was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys), and spash (spies).

How was the Mauryan administrative system structured?

The Mauryan administrative system was divided into central administration, provincial administration, local administration, revenue administration, judicial administration, and military administration. The King was the supreme authority, and the administration was organized into departments, each headed by a Superintendent known as 'Adhyaksha.'

What were the key features of the Gupta period's administrative system?

The Gupta period's administrative system was characterized by monarchy, with the King being the highest authority. The Empire was divided into administrative divisions like Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala. The administrative system included central administration, provincial administration, local administration, revenue administration, judicial administration, and military administration.

How did the judicial administration function during the Gupta period?

During the Gupta period, the King was responsible for upholding the law and dealing with legal cases with the help of Brahman priests, judges, and ministers. The decision or the judgment of the court was based on legal texts, social customs, and the discretion of the King. The King also acted as the highest court of appeal.

How did trade and business develop during the Gupta Empire?

The Gupta Empire carried out trade activities with countries like China, Ceylon, several European countries, and the East Indian islands. This made the Empire economically and strategically strong, which led to annexation of new states and the expansion of the territorial boundaries of the Empire.