Establishment & Expansiaon of the Delhi Sultanate - 1 - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• The Delhi Sultanate was a period in North Indian history that lasted from around 1200 AD to 1526 AD, during which rulers known as Sultans governed significant portions of the region. These Sultans were of Turkish and Afghan origin and came to power in India after defeating the native ruling dynasties, primarily the Rajputs in northern India. Prithvi Raj Chauhan was the prominent Indian ruler who was overthrown by the invading Turk, Muhammad Ghori.
• Over the course of more than 300 years, five distinct dynasties ruled Delhi. These included the Mamluks (1206-1290 AD), also known as the Slave Dynasty; the Khaljis (1290-1320 AD); the Tughlaqs (1320-1412 AD); the Sayyids (1412-1451 AD); and the Lodis (1451-1526 AD). Collectively, they are referred to as the Delhi Sultanate.
• The final Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, was defeated by the Mughals, led by Babur, in 1526 AD. This marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India.

Arab Invasion of India

• During the early 8th century, India experienced an invasion from the North-West region by the Arabs. This invasion, which took place in AD 712, was led by Muhammad Bin Qasim, a general from the Umayyad caliphate. The Arab invasion of India was a part of the larger policy of expansion during this time period.
• The emergence of Islam in Arabia led to the development of a new political system. Following the capture of Mecca by the Prophet Muhammad, the process of expansion continued even after his death. As a result, the Arab invasion of India was a significant event in the history of the region, marking the spread of Islam and its influence on the Indian subcontinent.

Rise And Spread Of Islam

• In the 7thCentury AD, a new religion named “ISLAM” was born in Arabia and in a very short span it carved out an empire extending from North Africa to Iberian Peninsula to Iran and India. Islam was founded and preached by Prophet Muhammad (AD 570–632). This religion transformed the religious, political and social life of not only the people of Arabia but also of many parts of the world. Islam laid emphasis upon belief in one God and its holy book as the “QURAN”. Muslims believe that the Quran is revealed by God to Prophet Muhammad.
• Quran is respected as the supreme source of authority in Islam. Every Muslim was asked to pray five times a day, to fast during the month of Ramzan, to distribute alms and to make a pilgrimage, if possible, to Mecca. After the death of Prophet (AD 632) the task of providing religious and political leadership to the Muslims passed on to the Caliphs. (Caliph is derived from the Arabic word ‘Khalifa’ which means ‘deputy’. This is a title given to the rulers who succeeded Prophet Muhammad).
• Between AD 632–661 there were four pious Caliphs, all close companions of the Prophet. The Umayyad Caliphate (AD 661–750) succeeded the pious Caliphs. Umayyad dynasty gave stability and prosperity to the Caliphate. Umayyad dynasty was followed by the Abbasid Caliphate (AD 750–1258). During the time of later Abbasids, the Caliphs began to loose political control and independent Muslim Rulers (Sultans) emerged in several regions.

• The Arab expansion was notable for the speed with which it was accomplished. Between AD 633–637, Arab conquered West Asia, Jordan Syria, Iraq, Turkey and Persia. They also conquered parts of North Africa and Southern Europe. Between AD 639–637, Egypt was also conquered. By AD 712, the Arabs had entered Spain and were soon making inroads into Southern France. By the 8th Century AD, the Arabs had acquired a core position from Spain to India, connecting the trade of Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.
• During the early years of the 8th Century, the Umayyads reached the height of their power. They had created the largest ever-Mulsim state that existed. Arabs were also attracted by the wealth of India. Arab merchants and sailors had brought back stories of great wealth of India. However, the reason for the invasion of Sindh was to avenge the plunder of Arab Ships by pirates of Debol. King Dahir refused to punish the pirates.
• Hajjaj the governor of Iraq despatched an army under Muhammad Bin Qasim. He arrived in Sind in AD 712, and besieged Debol which was situated on the sea coast.
• After crossing the Indus he marched forward. At Rawar, Muhammad Bin Qasim attacked Dahir who was defeated. Arabs killed a large number of fleeing soldiers. Dahir was also caught and killed. Muhammad Bin Qasim now proceeded forward and within a short span he conquered various important places in Sind including Brahmanabad.

Mahmud Ghazni

• Mahmud Ghazni, the son of Sabuktigin and a Turkish slave commander, invaded India 17 times between AD 1000-1026. He was the founder of the Ghazni dynasty. Mahmud Ghazni first encountered the Hindushai ruler, Jaipal, in AD 1001. Between AD 1004-06, he attacked the rulers of Multan, eventually leading to Punjab falling under Ghaznavid control.
• From AD 1014-1019, Mahmud Ghazni looted the temples of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura, and Kanauj, enriching his treasury. His first major victory came in AD 1008 with the attack on Nagarkot. In AD 1025, Mahmud launched his most ambitious campaign in India, targeting the Somnath temple in Saurashtra. After a fierce battle, in which over 50,000 defenders were killed, he captured the city. However, he left Somnath after a fortnight upon learning that Gujarat's King Bhima-I was preparing to confront him.

Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India till 1026

• Mahmud Ghazni's invasions of India were driven by his desire to establish Ghazni as a formidable power in Central Asia's politics. He aimed to acquire India's famed wealth to consolidate his extensive rule in the region, rather than establish an empire within India itself. The Ghaznavids maintained control over parts of Punjab and Sind until AD 1135. His invasions exposed the weak defenses of Indian kingdoms and paved the way for future attacks by the Turks.

Muhammad Ghori (Shahabuddin Muhammad)

• In 1173 AD, Shahabuddin Muhammad, also known as Muhammad Ghori (1173-1206 AD), ascended to the throne of Ghazni. The Ghoris, however, were not powerful enough to challenge the growing might of the Khwarizmi Empire, and they realized that they could not achieve any significant gains in Central Asia. Consequently, Ghori was compelled to shift his focus towards India to fulfill his ambitions of territorial expansion.
• Unlike his predecessors, Muhammad Ghori was keen on establishing a permanent empire in India rather than merely plundering its wealth. His military campaigns were meticulously planned and executed, and upon conquering any territory, he would appoint a general to govern it during his absence. This strategic approach led to the establishment of the Turkish Sultanate in the region north of the Vindhya Mountains, marking a lasting impact of his invasions on Indian history.

Political Condition of India on the Eve of Ghori Invasion
On the eve of Ghori Invasion, India had not experienced any significant foreign invasions for nearly 150 years, since Mahmud's last invasion in 1027. Regrettably, India failed to learn crucial political lessons from these past experiences and did not develop the foresight needed to face new challenges. The political landscape of India remained largely unchanged during this time, with only a few shifts in ruling dynasties and territories.
India was politically fragmented, with numerous kingdoms spread across both the northern and southern regions. In North India, several Rajput princes ruled over various territories. Some of the most prominent rulers included:

• Prithviraj Chauhan, who governed Delhi and Ajmer,
• Jayachandra, the ruler of Kannauj,
• Mularaja II, the Solanki king of Gujarat,
• Lakshmanasena, the Sena king of Bengal, among others.

These Rajput rulers were often engaged in internecine warfare, which significantly weakened their respective states. This lack of unity and ongoing conflict left India vulnerable to foreign invasions, such as the one led by Muhammad Ghori.

Conquest of Punjab and Sind

• Muhammad Ghori led his first expedition in AD 1175. He marched against Multan and freed it from its ruler. In the same campaign he captured Uchch from the Bhatti Rajputs. Three years later in AD 1178 he again marched to conquer Gujarat but the Chalukya ruler of Guj arat, Ghima II defeated him at the battle of Anhilwara. But this defeat did not discourage Muhammad Ghori. He realised the necessity of creating a suitable base in Punjab before venturing on the further conquest of India.
• He launched a campaign against the Ghaznavid possessions in Punjab. As a result Peshawar was conquered in AD 1179-80 and Lahore in AD 1186. The fort of Sialkot and Debol were captured next. Thus by AD 1190 having secured Multan, Sind and Punjab, Muhammad Ghori had paved the way for a further thrust into the Gangetic Doab.

The First Battle of Tarain (AD 1191)

• The First Battle of Tarain in AD 1191 marked a significant clash between Muhammad Ghori and the Rajput ruler Prithivaraja Chauhan. Muhammad Ghori had already taken control of Punjab and attempted to extend his domain into the Gangetic Doab region. This expansion brought him into conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan, who had conquered several smaller states in Rajputana and seized Delhi. The dispute between the two leaders began over the territory of Bhatinda.
• In the initial battle at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori's army faced defeat, and Ghori had a narrow escape from death. Prithviraj Chauhan successfully captured Bhatinda; however, he failed to properly secure the area with a strong garrison. This misstep allowed Ghori to regroup his forces and prepare for a renewed invasion into India.

The Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192)

• The Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 AD is considered a pivotal moment in Indian history. Muhammad Ghori meticulously prepared for this conquest, leading to a face-off between Turkish and Rajput forces once more at Tarain. Although the Indian forces outnumbered the Turks, they were no match for the superior organization, skill, and speed of the Turkish cavalry.
• The Turkish cavalry employed two innovative techniques that gave them an edge in battle. Firstly, they used horseshoes to extend the lifespan of their horses and protect their hooves. Secondly, they utilized iron stirrups, providing the rider with a secure grip and enhanced striking power during combat. As a result, a significant number of Indian soldiers were killed. Prithviraj attempted to flee but was captured near Sarsuti. The Turkish army went on to capture the fortresses of Hansi, Sarsuti, and Samana, advancing further to take over Delhi and Ajmer.
• Following the battle, Ghori returned to Ghazni, entrusting the administration of India to his loyal slave general, Qutbuddin Aibak. In 1194 AD, Ghori returned to India with 50,000 cavalry, crossing the Yamuna River and heading towards Kanauj. He decisively defeated Jai Chand at Chandwar near Kanauj, thus establishing the foundation for Turkish rule in Northern India.
• Muhammad Ghori's political achievements in India were more enduring than those of Mahmud of Ghazni. While Mahmud Ghazni primarily focused on plunder, Ghori aimed to establish political control. His death in 1206 AD did not lead to the withdrawal of Turkish interests in India, as his slave General Qutbuddin Aibak succeeded him and became the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.

Estimate

• His greatest achievement was the establishment of Turkish empire in India which added a fresh chapter to the Indian history.
• He was assassinated by the Khokars on the bank of rivers Indus in 1206, while engaging his evening prayers.
• Qutubuddin Aibak, one of the slaves of Muhammad Ghori became the master of his Indian provinces and laid foundation for Delhi Sultanate in 1206

The Mamluk Sultans

With Qutbuddin Aibak, begins the period of Mamluk Sultans or the slave dynasty.

Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning “owned”. It was used to distinguish the imported Turkish slaves meant for military service from the lower slaves used as domestic labour or artisan. The Mamluk Sultans ruled from AD 1206 to 1290.

Qutbuddin Aibak (AD 1206–1210)

• Qutbuddin Aibak was a Turkish slave who had risen to high rank in Muhammad Ghori’s army. After Muhammad Ghori’s death in AD 1206, the control of his Indian possessions was passed on to Qutbuddin Aibak. Aibak was the first independent Muslim ruler of Northern India, the founder of Delhi Sultanate.
• Aibak had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs. Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi. Nasiruddin Qabacha, the governor of Multan and Uchch aspired for independence. Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power.
• He defeated Yaldauz and occupied Ghazni. The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra had driven out the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad. Aibak re-conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad.
• Qutbuddin Aibak was brave, faithful and generous. Due to his generosity he was known as “Lakh Baksh”. Most of the scholars consider Aibak as the real founder of Mulsim rule in India.

Iltutmish (AD 1210–1236)

• In AD 1210, Aibak died of injuries received in a fall from his horse while playing chaugan (Polo). After his death a few amirs raised his son Aram Shah to the throne in Lahore.
• But Aram Shah was incapable ruler and the Turkish amirs opposed him. The Turkish chiefs of Delhi invited the governor of Badayun (son-in-law of Qutbuddin Aibak) “Iltutmish” to come to Delhi. Aram Shah proceeded against him at the head of the army from Lahore to Delhi but Iltutmish defeated him and became the Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin. The credit of consolidating the Delhi Sultanate lies largely with him.
• When Iltutmish ascended the throne, he found himself surrounded with many problems. Other commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qubacha and Ali Mardan rose in defiance again. The chief of Jalor and Ranthambore joined Gwalior and Kalinjar in declaring their independence. Apart from this, the rising power of Mongols under Chenghiz Khan threatened the North West Frontier of the Sultanate.
• Iltutmish took up the task of consolidating his position. He defeated Yaldauz in AD 1215 in the battle of Tarain. In AD 1217 he drove away Qabacha from Punjab. In AD 1220, when Chenghiz Khan destroyed the Khwarizm expire, Iltutmish realised the political necessity of avoiding a confrontation with the Mongols. Thus when Jalaluddin Mangbarani, the son of the Shah of Khwarizm, while escaping from the Mongols, sought shelter at Iltutmish’s court, Iltutmish turned him away. He thus saved the Sultanate from destruction by the Mongols.
• From AD 1225 onwards, Iltutmish engaged his armies in suppressing the disturbances in the East. In AD 1226–27 Iltutmish sent a large army under his son Nasiruddin Mahmud which defeated Iwaz Khan and brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. Similarly a campaign was also launched against the Rajput chiefs. Ranthambore was captured in AD 1226 and by AD 1231 Iltutmish had established his authority over Mandor, Jalore, Bayana and Gwalior.
• There is no doubt that Iltutmish completed the unfinished work of Aibak. The Delhi Sultanate now covered a sizeable territory. Besides this, he also organised his trusted nobles or officers into a group of “Forty” (Turkan-i-Chahalgani). He was a farsighted ruler and he consolidated and organised the newly formed Turkish Sultanate in Delhi.

Shamsuddin Iltutmish

Note: Iltutmish established ‘Group of Forty’ (Turkan-i-Chahalgani). These were Turkish amirs (nobles) who advised and helped the Sultan in administering the Sultanate.

After the death of Iltutmish, this group assumed great power in its hands. For a few years they decided on the selection of Sultans one after the other. The group was finally eliminated by Balban.

• Iltutmish effectively suppressed the defiant amirs of Delhi. He separated the Delhi Sultanate from Ghazni, Ghor and Central Asian politics. Iltutmish also obtained a ‘Letter of Investiture’ in AD 1229 from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad to gain legitimacy.
• Iltutmish made a significant contribution in giving shape to administrative institution such as iqtas, army and currency system. He gave the Sultanate two of its basic coins– the silver ‘Tanka’ and the copper ‘Jittal’. To affect greater control over the conquered areas Iltutmish granted iqtas (land assignments in lieu of cash salaries) to his Turkish officers on a large scale. The recipients of “iqtas” called the “iqtadars” collected the land revenue from the territories under them. Out of this they maintained an armed contingent for the service of the state, enforced law and order and met their own expenses. Iltutmish realized the economic potentiality of the Doab and the iqtas were distributed mainly in this region. This secured for Iltutmish the financial and administrative control over one of the most prestigious regions of North India. (You will read details of administration in lesson 12)

Raziya  (AD 1236–40)

• The problem of successor troubled Iltutmish during his last days. Iltutmish did not consider any of his sons worthy of the throne. His own choice was his daughter Raziya hence he nominated her as his successor. But after his death his son Ruknuddin Firoz ascended the throne with the help of army leaders. However with the support of the people of Delhi and some military leaders, Raziya soon ascended the throne.
• Despite her obvious qualities, Raziya did not fare significantly better primarily because of her attempts to create a counter nobility of non-Turks and invited the wrath of the Turkish amirs. They were particularly incensed over her decision to appoint the Abyssinian, Malik Jamaluddin Yaqut, as the amir-i-akhur (master of the horses); the recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important posts further inflamed matters.
• The nobility realized that, though a woman, Raziya was not willing to be a puppet in their hands, therefore the nobles started revolting against her in the provinces. They accused her of violating feminine modesty and being too friendly to an Abbyssinian noble, Yaqut. She got killed after she was defeated by the nobles. Thus her reign was a brief one and came to end in AD 1240.

Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–66 AD)

• The struggle for power between Sultan and the Turkish Chiefs “Chahalgani” which began during the reign of Raziya continued. After Raziya’s death, the power of Chahalgani increased and they became largely responsible for making and unmaking of kings. Behram Shah (AD 1240–42) and Masud Shah (AD 1242–46) were made Sultans and removed in succession.
• After them, in AD 1246, Ulugh Khan (later known as Balban) placed the inexperienced and young Nasiruddin (grandson of Iltutmish) on throne and himself assumed the position of Naib (deputy). To further strengthen his position, he married his daughter to Nasiruddin. Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud died in AD 1265. According to Ibn Battuta and Isami, Balban poisoned his master Nasiruddin and ascended the throne.

Balban (AD 1266-87)

• The conflict between the sultan and the Turkish nobles persisted until Ulugh Khan, also known as Balban, gradually consolidated power and ultimately became the Sultan in AD 1266. Balban's position was not secure at this point, as many Turkish chiefs were hostile towards him, the Mongols were waiting for a chance to attack the Sultanate, distant provincial governors were attempting to become independent rulers, and Indian rulers were prepared to revolt at the slightest opportunity.
• The law and order situation around Delhi and the Doab region had worsened. In the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and Awadh, roads were plagued by thieves and bandits, which made communication with the eastern areas difficult. Some Rajput landlords had established forts in the region and defied the government, while the Mewatis had become so brazen as to plunder people up to the outskirts of Delhi. To address these issues, Balban implemented a strict policy. Many Mewatis were killed, and Rajput strongholds in the area around Badayun were destroyed.
• Balban ruled with an iron fist and strived to enhance the stature of the Sultan. He did not allow any noble to accumulate significant power and even developed his own theory of kingship. The historian Barani, a strong supporter of the Turkish nobles, claims that Balban said, "Whenever I see a baseborn ignoble man, my eyes burn and I reach in anger for my sword (to kill him)." Although it is unclear whether Balban actually uttered these words, his disdain for non-Turks was evident. Balban was unwilling to share power with anyone, including his own family.
• Balban was resolute in breaking the power of the Chahalgani. To stay well-informed, he appointed spies in every department and organized a robust centralized army to handle internal disturbances and repel the Mongols who had established themselves in Punjab, posing a considerable threat to the Delhi Sultanate. Balban restructured the military department (diwan-i-arz) and stationed the army in various parts of the country to suppress rebellion. Unrest in Mewat, Doab, Awadh, and Katihar was brutally quelled.

Ghiyasuddin Balban

• Balban also gained control over Ajmer and Nagaur in eastern Rajputana, but his attempts to seize Ranthambore and Gwalior were unsuccessful. In AD 1279, the governor of Bengal, Tughril Beg, rebelled and declared himself Sultan due to the Mongol threats and Balban's old age. Balban sent his forces to Bengal, killing Tughril and subsequently appointing his own son, Bughra Khan, as the governor of Bengal.
• Through these harsh measures, Balban managed to control the situation. He maintained a magnificent court to demonstrate the strength and awe of his government. He refused to laugh or joke in court and even stopped drinking wine so no one would see him in a non-serious mood. He also insisted on the ceremony of sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing the monarch's feet) in court.
• Balban was undeniably one of the primary architects of the Delhi Sultanate, particularly in terms of its government and institutions. By asserting the power of the monarchy, he strengthened the Delhi Sultanate. However, he was unable to fully defend northern India from Mongol attacks. Additionally, by excluding non-Turks from positions of power and authority, and by only trusting a very narrow racial group, he caused dissatisfaction among many people. This led to new disturbances and troubles following his death.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Establishment & Expansiaon of the Delhi Sultanate - 1

Who were the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and where did they come from?

The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate were known as Sultans and were of Turkish and Afghan origin. They established their rule in India after defeating the Indian ruling dynasties, mainly Rajputs in northern India.

What was the importance of the Second Battle of Tarain in Indian history?

The Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 is considered one of the turning points in Indian history. It marked the beginning of the Muslim rule in India, as the Turkish forces led by Muhammad Ghori defeated the Indian forces under Prithviraj Chauhan.

What was the significance of Iltutmish's reign in the Delhi Sultanate?

Iltutmish played a crucial role in consolidating the Delhi Sultanate. He expanded the territories under his control, established his authority over various regions, and organized the administrative system, including the introduction of iqtas and the currency system.

Who was Raziya and why was her reign significant?

Raziya was the daughter of Iltutmish and the first female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Her reign was significant because she attempted to create a counter-nobility of non-Turks and tried to rule independently without being controlled by the Turkish nobles. However, her efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, and she was killed after a brief reign.

How did Balban deal with the Chahalgani and strengthen the Sultanate?

Balban was determined to break the power of the Chahalgani, a group of Turkish nobles who held significant power in the Sultanate. He adopted a stern policy, appointing spies in every department to keep himself informed and reorganizing the military department to deploy the army in various parts of the country to suppress rebellions. By doing so, he was able to strengthen the central authority of the Sultanate and maintain control over the various regions.