Economy - 1 - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• During medieval India, people engaged in a wide range of economic activities to sustain their livelihoods. These activities spanned from agriculture to artisanal production, and from trade and commerce to related financial services. Throughout this period, these activities experienced various transformations. The state collected different types of taxes to support its survival and expansion.
• In this lesson, we will explore the various methods of production, resource mobilization by the state, and trade and commercial activities. We will examine the scope of agricultural production, including the extent of cultivation, crop patterns, and irrigation methods and techniques.
• We will also delve into the taxation system, focusing on land revenue administration, the role of landed intermediaries, and the impact on the peasantry. In the section on non-agricultural production, we will discuss a wide array of medieval Indian crafts, the technologies involved in their production, and the organization of production.
• Furthermore, we will investigate various aspects of medieval Indian trade and commerce, such as the roles of commercial classes like sarrafs, merchants, and brokers, as well as commercial practices including bills of exchange (hundi), brokerage, and insurance.

Agricultural Production

Agricultural production constituted the bulk of production during medieval period. The income from agriculture was the main source of state revenue.

1. Extent of Cultivation

• The extent of cultivation refers to the area of land that is actively cultivated in relation to the total available cultivable land. It is important to note that there was a surplus of available land compared to the land actually cultivated by peasants during the Sultanate and Mughal periods in India. This meant that increasing agricultural production was achieved by expanding agriculture into previously uncultivated areas.
• Historical sources indicate that during the Sultanate period, even fertile regions like the Ganga-Yamuna Doab had large areas covered by forests and grasslands. The situation remained similar during the Mughal period, with a favorable ratio of land to the population. As a result, rulers of this era focused on expanding agriculture into areas that had not been cultivated before. This involved introducing agriculture to tribal, remote, and underdeveloped regions, clearing forests, and converting agricultural wastelands into productive farmland. The extent of agriculture saw significant growth from the Sultanate to the Mughal period.
• By the Mughal period, agriculture was practiced in almost all parts of the empire, yet there was still an abundance of surplus land compared to the needs of the agricultural population. The extent of cultivation increased notably during Aurangzeb's reign compared to Akbar's reign. The expansion of cultivation in areas like Bihar, Awadh, and parts of Bengal can be attributed to the clearance of forests, while in Punjab and Sind, it was due to the development of canal networks.

In summary, the extent of cultivation during the Sultanate and Mughal periods in India was characterized by a surplus of available land and a focus on expanding agriculture into previously uncultivated areas. This expansion was achieved through clearing forests, converting wastelands, and developing canal networks, leading to a significant increase in the cultivation of land throughout the empire.

2. Crop Pattern
During the medieval period in India, peasants cultivated a diverse range of food crops, cash crops, vegetables, and spices. They were well-versed in advanced agricultural techniques of their time, such as double cropping, harvesting three crops, crop rotation, using manures, and various irrigation methods.

• Food crops included rice, wheat, barley, millet (jowar, bajra), and several pulses like gram, arhar, moong, moth, urd, and khisari. Cash crops, such as sugarcane, cotton, indigo (for blue dye extraction), opium, and silk, were also prevalent in medieval India. Wine made from sugarcane became popular by the 14th century, and during the Mughal era, Bengal was known for producing high-quality sugarcane. Bayana (near Agra) and Sarkhej (near Ahmedabad) were famous for the finest indigo, while sericulture (silk worm rearing on mulberry plants) expanded during the Mughal era, with Bengal as the primary silk-producing region. The Mughal provinces of Bihar and Malwa were known for the best opium. The Portuguese introduced tobacco cultivation in the 16th century, which later spread across India, with Surat and Bihar as major tobacco-producing centers. Coffee cultivation also began on a large scale from the 17th century.
• Fruit crop cultivation saw significant growth during the medieval period, with some Delhi sultans actively promoting it. For example, Firuz Shah Tughlaq established 1200 orchards around Delhi. Mughal emperors and their nobles also planted luxurious orchards. Several fruits were introduced to India through external sources during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Portuguese brought pineapple, papaya, and cashew nuts, while cherry came from Kabul. Leechi and guava were also introduced during this time. A wide variety of vegetables were grown by medieval Indian peasants, with Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari providing a list of vegetables used at that time. Potatoes, chilies, and tomatoes were introduced during the late medieval period.
• Spices such as pepper, clove, cardamom, turmeric, saffron, and betel-leaf were important products of medieval Indian peasants. By the Mughal era, the southern coast of India started exporting large quantities of various spices to different regions in Asia and Europe.

3. Means and Methods of Irrigation

• Agriculture in India has always relied on various natural and artificial water sources for irrigation, such as rain, wells, rivers, tanks, canals, and lakes. Dams, lakes, and water reservoirs played a significant role in providing irrigation. In South India, the state government, local chiefs, and temple administrations constructed numerous dams across rivers for this purpose. For example, the Vijaynagar rulers built the Madag lake on the Tungbhadra river to cater to the irrigation needs of the surrounding areas. In medieval Rajasthan, lakes and water reservoirs like Dhebar, Udaisagar, Rajasamand, Jaisamand (all in Mewar); Balsan (Marwar), and Mansagar (Amber) served as crucial irrigation sources.
• Wells were a widespread irrigation source across the country. Various artificial devices were used to lift water from wells. Pulleys were used to draw water from wells, and another method involved a lever mechanism. In this technique, an upright beam's fork was kept in a swinging position, with one end tied to a long rope and the other carrying a weight heavier than the filled bucket. The Persian wheel, introduced in India during the Sultanate period, was the most advanced water-lifting device of that time. In this method, a garland of pots was attached to a wheel's rim, along with a gear mechanism, which was rotated using animal power.
• The Delhi Sultans, especially, promoted canal irrigation. Ghiyassuddin Tughlaq (A.D. 1320-1325) constructed several canals for this purpose. However, Firuz Shah Tughlaq was responsible for developing the largest network of canals. Four main canals are frequently mentioned in historical sources: (i) from Sutlej to Ghaggar, (ii) opening from the Nandavi and Simur hills to Arasani, (iii) from Ghaggar, reaching up to the village of Hiransi Khera, and (iv) excavated from Yamuna and extended up to Firuzabad. The Mughal emperors continued the Delhi Sultans' tradition of constructing canals. For instance, the Nahr Faiz, built during Shahjahan's reign, carried water from the Yamuna and irrigated a vast area.

Land Revenue Assessment and Magnitude of the Land Revenue Demand

• The medieval state derived the largest share of its income from land revenue. An elaborate mechanism of land revenue administration gradually developed due to efforts of medieval rulers like Alauddin Khalji, Sher Shah Suri and Akbar. In its developed form, the land revenue administration involved well formulated policies. These were:
  (i) Actual measurement of cultivable land for the purpose of assessment of land revenue
  (ii) Classification of land on the basis of the fertility of soil
  (iii) Fixation of rate of the land revenue demand
  (iv) Establishment of elaborate mechanism for its collection, and
  (v) Working out modalities for assessment and collection of land revenue in cash.
• During the medieval period different methods of revenue assessment and collection were used. The most simple and basic method was crop sharing or batai. The state fixed a certain ratio of produce as state’s share. In this method out of the total produce the state share was collected by designated official. Here the measurement of land had no bearing on revenue collection. The actual produce was the main focus of attention.

Crop Sharing

• Crop sharing was practiced in three different ways. The first method involved dividing the crop at the threshing floor after obtaining the grain. The second method, known as Khet-batai, involved dividing the field when the crop was still standing. The third method, called Langbatai, involved cutting and stacking the crop in heaps without separating the grain. In each method, the state's share was determined accordingly.
• In the second method, called Kankut, land measurement was crucial. The land was first measured, and then the productivity of the land was estimated to determine the revenue demand per unit of the measured area. Sher Shah refined this assessment method by taking sample cuttings from three types of land - good, middling, and bad - and calculating an average yield. The state's demand was fixed at one-third of the average yield. The revenue demand per bigha for each crop was declared, known as the rai of Sher Shah. During the early years of Akbar, these rates were adopted for the entire empire. The state's demand was expressed in kind but could be collected or paid in cash based on the prevailing prices.
• The third method, known as Zabt, involved assessment based on land measurement. The state's share was determined based on yields. Akbar further refined this method by dividing the territories into revenue circles or dasturs. For each dastur circle, per bigha revenue rates for different crops in cash were calculated based on productivity and prices. To address the issue of compiling new rates every year for different localities, the Ain-i-Dahsala, or ten-year revenue rates, was adopted. This meant that the average of the rates from the previous ten years was used as the cash revenue rate for a specific crop. However, these rates were changed irregularly and not updated annually. Initially, this method was implemented in the provinces of Agra, Allahabad, Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, and Malwa, and later extended to other regions.

It is important to note that not all land in a particular region was measured at any given time. This suggests that even in measured territories, some areas remained unmeasured. As a result, other methods of assessment and collection were followed in almost all parts of the country, even in the Zabti regions.

Classification of land

• The cultivable land was classified into three categories based on its fertility - good, middling, and bad. Additionally, land was divided into four types according to the continuity of cultivation - polaj, parati, chachar, and banjar. Polaj land supported the growth of two crops every year, while parati land required a fallow period after producing two crops to regain fertility. Chachar land was less fertile, and cultivation occurred only once every three or four years. Banjar land was unsuitable for cultivation and was rarely plowed.
• Land revenue made up the majority of the state's income. As a result, the state aimed to increase the area under cultivation to maximize revenue. The state's efforts were focused on ensuring that cultivators paid the maximum amount of revenue.
• The Mughal land revenue administration was organized at the pargana level. Different officials were responsible for surveying land and collecting revenue. The head of the surveying party was the amin, while the amil oversaw revenue collection. The qanungo, who was in charge of all revenue records, assisted the amin. The chaudhari helped the amil with revenue collection.
• At the village level, the patwari maintained the records, and the muqaddam, or village headman, performed the collections. Other officials included the potadar (treasurer) and karkun (clerk). Records were kept in both Persian and regional languages.

Patta and Qabuliat

• Each farmer received a state-issued document known as a patta (title deed), which outlined the specifics of the different types of land they possessed and the land revenue rates they were required to pay based on the crops they grew. 
• Additionally, a contractual agreement called Qabuliat was established, in which the farmer committed to paying a specific amount of land revenue to the state. Along with the land revenue, farmers were also obligated to pay extra charges to cover the expenses associated with assessing and collecting revenues.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Economy

What were the main sources of income for the medieval Indian state?

The main source of income for the medieval Indian state was agricultural production, which constituted the bulk of production during this period. Land revenue was the primary source of income for the state.

How was land classified in medieval India for the purpose of revenue assessment?

Land in medieval India was classified based on the fertility of land and continuity of cultivation. The classifications were: good, middling, and bad for fertility, and polaj, parati, chachar, and banjar for continuity of cultivation.

What were the different methods of land revenue assessment and collection in medieval India?

There were three main methods of land revenue assessment and collection in medieval India: Crop Sharing (Batai), Kankut (measurement-based assessment), and Zabt (measurement-based assessment with fixed revenue rates). Crop Sharing involved dividing the produce between the state and the cultivator, while Kankut and Zabt methods involved measuring the land and estimating productivity to fix the revenue demand per unit area.

What roles did different officials play in the land revenue administration in medieval India?

The land revenue administration in medieval India was organized at the pargana level. The Amin was the head of the surveying party, and the Amil was in charge of revenue collections. The Qanungo assisted the Amin and was responsible for maintaining all revenue records, while the Chaudhari assisted the Amil in revenue collection. At the village level, the Patwari maintained records and the Muqaddam or village headman was responsible for collections. Other officials included the Potadar (treasurer) and Karkun (clerk).

What were Patta and Qabuliat in medieval Indian land revenue administration?

Patta was a title deed given by the state to each cultivator, detailing the categories of land held by the cultivator and the rate of land revenue payable by them on different crops. Qabuliat was a deed agreement in which the cultivator promised to pay a particular amount of land revenue to the state. In addition to land revenue, cultivators were also required to pay certain additional cesses to cover the cost of assessment and collection of revenues.