Modernity & Social Changes in Europe and Emergence of Sociology | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

"Sociology is a scientific endeavor aimed at examining and understanding society. Its origins can be traced back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily in Western and Central Europe. To comprehend the reasons behind the emergence of sociology, it is important to consider the historical context and circumstances in which it developed".

Factors Responsible for Rise of Sociology

• • The rise of sociology can be attributed to various factors that were prevalent during the transformation of Europe.
  • This period was marked by modernization, bringing about a mix of hope and despair.
  • While it signaled the dawn of progress, it also led to disharmony and unrest.
  • Sociology emerged as a discipline to make sense of these changes.
  • One of the primary factors for the rise of sociology was the growth of science.
  • As scientific knowledge advanced, traditional beliefs were challenged.
  • The new understanding was that human endeavors were shaping the world.
  • Sociology emerged as a means to comprehend this shift.
  • Another significant factor was the emergence of capitalist society and the problems it created.
  • The capitalist system led to new social issues that required analysis.
  • Sociology provided a framework to analyze the social impact of capitalism.
  • Furthermore, intellectual developments during this period were crucial.
  • The convergence of social and intellectual conditions created a necessary environment for sociology.
  • The exchange of ideas among thinkers led to the formulation of sociological theories.
  • These theories aimed to explain the changing social landscape.

In summary, the rise of sociology can be attributed to the transformation of Europe, the growth of science, the emergence of capitalist society, and the intellectual developments of the time. These factors collectively contributed to the establishment of sociology as a discipline that sought to understand and interpret the complex social changes taking place during this period. From a UPSC exam perspective, it is essential to recognize the significance of these factors in shaping the development of sociology and its role in analyzing and addressing the challenges and opportunities that emerged during this transformative era.

Changes that were taking place

• Emergence of Feudal Society: The traditional society of medieval Europe, also known as the Dark Ages, emerged around the 7th-8th century A.D. following the collapse of the Roman Empire. During this period, various warriors conquered territories and distributed lands to their followers based on loyalty and service. In return for the land, the followers worked on the lord's estate and provided military service when needed.
• Agrarian Economy: Medieval Europe had a subsistence agrarian economy, which means that the primary objective was to satisfy the needs of those dependent on the land. This type of economy was focused on producing enough food and resources for the local population rather than engaging in trade or generating surplus for export.
• Political Decentralization: Politically, medieval Europe was characterized by a decentralized system where the feudal lord held most of the power within his estate. The lord was autonomous and only answered to the king, who had limited authority and was responsible for addressing residual matters. This system of governance led to a lack of centralized control and a fragmented political landscape.
• Social Stratification: Socially, medieval Europe was a rigidly stratified society divided into estates. Each estate was governed by its own laws, and there was little interaction or mobility between the different social classes. This hierarchical structure perpetuated inequality and limited opportunities for social advancement.

• Limited Trade and Commerce: During the medieval period, there was very little trade or commerce in Europe. The agrarian economy produced minimal surplus for trade, and the political and social conditions were not conducive to the development of a thriving commercial sector. As a result, economic growth and innovation were limited during this time.

By the start of 14th century, this system was on decline because of:

• • The decline of the feudal system in the 14th century can be attributed to various factors.
  • International contradictions, the Black Death, and the discovery of new trade routes by Marco Polo played significant roles.
  • Decentralization led to feuds among feudal lords.
  • Wars such as the 100 Years War between England and France were detrimental to trade.
  • The need for a permanent, cash-paid army contributed to the decline of the traditional barter system.
  • The rise of market economies was a direct result of these changes.
  • The Black Death wiped out almost half of the European population.
  • Feudal lords were forced to offer cash incentives to attract workers.
  • Marco Polo's discovery brought new technologies from China.
  • Technologies included the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and knowledge of printing and paper.
  • These advancements facilitated shipbuilding and weaving industries.
  • The influx of gold and silver from Latin America led to centralization of authority.
  • This centralization contributed to the establishment of absolute monarchies.
  • The emerging merchant class supported centralization for effective law and order.
  • This support led to the formation of sovereign nation-states.
  • Surplus profits from trade were reinvested in land.
  • This reinvestment contributed to the Enclosure Movement in Europe.
  • The Enclosure Movement facilitated the rise of capitalist agrarian economies.
  • The growth of trade displaced many small farmers.
  • This displacement contributed to the decline of traditional village communities.
  • The factory system of production changed social relations.
  • Poor peasants and artisans migrated to cities in search of better lives.
  • These workers became cheap labor for growing industries.
  • Workers often faced long working hours, low wages, and unhygienic conditions.
  • The expansion of trade led to the creation of new business organizations.
  • These included regulated companies, joint stock companies, and chartered companies.
  • While developments generated wealth and prosperity for landowners and merchants, they also exacerbated poverty.
  • The 19th century saw an increase in crime, violence, and class uprisings.
  • This period was dubbed the "Century of Revolutions."
  • As the capitalist system developed, the locus of economic power shifted from landowners to the bourgeoisie.
  • The bourgeoisie sought political power to further their interests.
  • This shift led to the decline of the divine right theory and questioning of monarchies.
  • Such questioning culminated in events such as the French Revolution.

Beliefs That Were Adopted By The  Enlightened Philosophers

• The Enlightenment philosophers believed that human society is progressing towards perfection, unlike the earlier Christian belief in stagnation.
• They questioned whether these changes occurred randomly or followed a particular pattern.
• These philosophers assumed that changes took place in an orderly fashion and that laws governing these changes could be discovered.
• This belief in the existence of laws representing recurrent patterns in reality was a significant departure from traditional thinking.
• They redefined the concept of society, expanding the scope of history writing beyond kings and courtiers.
• The new concept of civil society included art, architecture, and religion, indicating society was larger than the state.
• Enlightenment thinkers believed that just as laws could be discovered for the physical world, they could also be applied to society.
• By employing scientific methods, they argued it was possible to develop rules and laws for a perfect human society.
• Some thinkers, like Marx, believed a rational and perfect society could be achieved through revolution.
• However, not all thinkers agreed; a conservative reaction emerged, led by the Roman Catholic Church.
• French conservative thinkers like Louis de Bonald and Joseph De Maistre condemned the changes as signs of society in decay.
• These thinkers called for stability and harmony, influencing the development of sociology.
• Later thinkers sought order in industrial society and adopted Enlightenment ideas.
• They believed it was possible to discover the laws governing society through scientific methods.
• August Comte stated, “To know is to predict, to predict is to control.”
• This belief in the power of science to solve human problems was a hallmark of the Enlightenment.
• This influence heavily shaped the development of sociology, particularly in France, where it was seen as a discipline similar to physics and biology.

Sociology as a Separate Branch of Study

• The birth of sociology as a discipline can be traced back to the dynamic landscape of European societies. Just as any idea is shaped by its social context, sociology emerged as a product of the profound transformations witnessed in Europe, eventually finding its intellectual home in the United States. This journey towards the establishment of sociology was deeply rooted in both social and intellectual upheavals, making it a fascinating study of human evolution.
• Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social interactions, and social change. It aims to understand the patterns, causes, and consequences of social phenomena at various levels, such as individual, group, institution, culture, and society. Sociology also explores the diversity and complexity of human societies across time and space.
• Sociology is different from other branches of study be it humanistic or natural sciences. It aims the study only the social phenomenon and social institutions. We will discuss about the definitions, characteristics, objectives and other related topics in separate articles. In this article, we will solely focus on the emergence of sociology- how did sociology emerge a separate branch of study, what were the factors that shaped the sociology as a separate subject, founding fathers of sociology, relevance of sociology and different streams of enquiry in sociology.

Historical Background of Sociology as a separate Branch of Study

• To understand the emergence of sociology, it’s crucial to delve into the religious fabric of European society. In the early stages, Europe was characterized by a deeply religious nature, where the Church held the highest authority. Social life and interpersonal relations were profoundly influenced by religious worldviews, and questioning the established beliefs was virtually unheard of.
• Sociology emerged as a distinct discipline in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe, during a period of rapid social, economic, and political transformation. During 18th and 19th century, European society was undergoing rapid changes. Old social structures were breaking while giving way to new social structures and institutions. The Europe was undergoing through the phase of rapid industrialization and urbanization. New banking and finance institutions were emerging. In these changing scenarios, many thinkers and intellectuals started studying and analyzing the social institutions and ongoing social change. And thus, emerged the sociology as a separate field of inquiry.
• Later, many intellectuals expanded the scope of study to other societies throughout the world and the societies and their institutions were studied by a number of sociologists. New methods and new perspectives to look into social institutions and social changes were applied. And thus, different branches of sociology emerged.

The role of Industrial Revolution on emergence of sociology

• The Industrial Revolution was a technological revolution that transformed the modes of production, transportation, and communication. It shifted the economy from agriculture to industry and commerce. It also created new social classes, such as capitalists, workers, and consumers.
• The industrial revolution was a period of rapid and profound transformation in the modes of production, transportation, and communication that occurred in Europe and America from the late 18th to the early 19th centuries. It involved the shift from an agrarian and handicraft economy to an industrial and machine-based economy, which resulted in the creation of new social classes, such as capitalists, workers, and consumers. It also led to the growth of urbanization, which increased the population and size of cities, where people lived and worked in close proximity and faced new social problems, such as poverty, crime, pollution, etc.

The Urbanization: Urbanization was a demographic process that increased the population and size of cities. It resulted from the migration of people from rural to urban areas in search of better opportunities and living conditions. It also created new social problems, such as poverty, crime, pollution, etc.
The industrial revolution had a significant impact on the emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline that aimed to study and explain the social phenomena that resulted from these changes. Some of the ways in which the industrial revolution influenced the development of sociology are:

• It stimulated the intellectual curiosity and critical thinking among the thinkers and philosophers who witnessed the changes and challenges brought by the industrial revolution. They sought to apply the scientific method and rationality to understand the nature, origin, and destiny of human society. They also questioned the traditional authority and legitimacy of religion, monarchy, and aristocracy that were challenged by the new social forces and movements.
• It created a demand for new knowledge and information about the social conditions and problems that emerged from the industrial revolution. The governments, businesses, reformers, and activists needed reliable data and statistics to monitor and regulate the social affairs and policies. The sociologists provided such data and statistics by conducting surveys, censuses, experiments, etc., using various methods and techniques.
• It generated new concepts and theories that explained the social structure, culture, values, and beliefs that were shaped by the industrial revolution. The sociologists developed various perspectives and paradigms that analyzed the social phenomena such as class, division of labor, social order, social change, etc., using various concepts such as social facts, historical materialism, rationalization, etc.
• It inspired new forms of social action and intervention that aimed to improve or reform the social conditions and problems that resulted from the industrial revolution. The sociologists participated in or influenced various social movements and organizations that advocated for democracy, human rights, social justice, etc., using various strategies such as education, propaganda, agitation, etc

The French Revolution and development of Sociology

• The French Revolution was a political revolution that overthrew the feudal system and established a republic based on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. It also inspired other movements for democracy, nationalism, and human rights in Europe and beyond. The French Revolution, commencing in 1789, brought about substantial changes in the societal mindset. It questioned the stratification system that had prevailed throughout Europe, introducing modern ideals of equality, liberty, and fraternity. As people became aware of their rights, demands for these rights surged, further stirring unrest in society.The French Revolution was a major historical event that influenced the emergence of sociology as a scientific study of society. The French Revolution, which took place from 1789 to 1799, was a political and social upheaval that challenged the existing order of feudalism, monarchy, and religion. It also inspired other movements for democracy, nationalism, and human rights in Europe and beyond.
• Some of the founding fathers of sociology, such as Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Karl Marx, were influenced by the French Revolution in their sociological theories and concepts. For example, Comte coined the term “sociology” and defined it as the science of society. He proposed a positivist approach to sociology that aimed to discover the laws governing social order and progress. He also classified the stages of human history into theological (based on supernatural explanations), metaphysical (based on abstract principles), and positive (based on empirical observations) stages, corresponding to the pre-revolutionary, revolutionary, and post-revolutionary periods.

The French Revolution was also influenced by the ideas and writings of some prominent French thinkers who preceded or participated in it. These thinkers contributed to the development of sociology by providing new insights and perspectives on society. Some of these thinkers are:

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau was a philosopher who advocated for natural rights, popular sovereignty, and social contract. He argued that human beings are born free and equal but are corrupted by society. He proposed that people should form a democratic society based on a social contract that ensures their freedom and happiness. He advocated his ideas in his books- The Social Contract, The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, etc.
• Voltaire: Voltaire was a writer who championed for civil liberties, religious tolerance, and rationalism. He criticized the abuses of power by the church and the state. He also advocated for free trade, free speech, and free thought. H
• Montesquieu: Montesquieu was a political philosopher who proposed the separation of powers as a way to prevent tyranny and ensure liberty.In his book- The Spirit of Laws, he divided the government into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. He also compared different forms of government such as monarchy, republic, and despotism.
• Condorcet: Condorcet was a mathematician who applied probability theory to social sciences. He also supported human rights, democracy, education, and progress. He envisioned a future society where reason would prevail over superstition and ignorance.

Founding Fathers of Sociology

• Auguste Comte: Auguste Comte was a French philosopher who coined the term “sociology” and defined it as the science of society. He proposed a positivist approach to sociology that aimed to discover the laws governing social order and progress. He also classified the stages of human history into theological, metaphysical, and positive stages.
• Emile Durkheim: Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist who established sociology as an academic discipline. He focused on the study of social facts, which are external and coercive forces that shape human behavior. He also studied the causes and consequences of social phenomena such as division of labor, religion, suicide, etc. Durkheim focused on the study of social facts, which are external and coercive forces that shape human behavior. He also studied the causes and consequences of social phenomena such as division of labor (the specialization of tasks in society), religion (the system of beliefs and practices that bind people together), suicide (the act of killing oneself), etc. He was interested in how society maintained its cohesion and stability after the revolution.
• Karl Marx: Karl Marx was a German philosopher who developed a critical perspective on society based on historical materialism. He argued that society is divided into classes that have conflicting interests due to the mode of production. He also predicted that capitalism would lead to class struggle and eventually be replaced by communism. Marx developed a critical perspective on society based on historical materialism (the view that material conditions determine social relations). He argued that society is divided into classes that have conflicting interests due to the mode of production (the way goods are produced and distributed). He also predicted that capitalism (the economic system based on private ownership and profit) would lead to class struggle (the conflict between the bourgeoisie or owners and the proletariat or workers) and eventually be replaced by communism (the economic system based on common ownership and equality). He was concerned with how society changed through conflict and revolution.
• Max Weber: Max Weber was a German sociologist who introduced a verstehen approach to sociology that aimed to understand the meanings and motives behind human actions. He also studied the effects of rationalization, bureaucratization, and religion on society. He also compared different types of authority, such as traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority.

Development of Sociology

• Functionalism: Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that views society as a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability and harmony. It focuses on the functions and dysfunctions of social institutions, such as family, education, religion, etc.
• Conflict Theory: Conflict Theory is a theoretical perspective that views society as a system of groups that compete for scarce resources and power. It focuses on the conflicts and inequalities among social classes, races, genders, etc.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that views society as a product of social interactions based on symbols and meanings. It focuses on how people construct their identities, roles, and realities through communication and interaction.
• Feminist Sociology: Feminist Sociology is an approach that applies feminist principles and perspectives to the study of society. It focuses on the issues and experiences of women and other marginalized groups in society. It also challenges the male-dominated assumptions and biases in sociology.
• Postmodern Sociology: Postmodern Sociology is an approach that questions the validity and objectivity of sociology in the context of contemporary society. It focuses on the diversity, complexity, and uncertainty of social reality. It also criticizes the grand narratives and metatheories of sociology.

Relevance of Sociology

• Social Change: Sociology can help to explain the causes and consequences of social change, such as globalization, urbanization, migration, etc. It can also help to evaluate the impact of social change on different groups and sectors of society.
• Social Problems: Sociology can help to identify and analyze the social problems, such as poverty, crime, violence, etc. It can also help to suggest and implement solutions to these problems.
• Social Policy: Sociology can help to inform and influence the social policies and programs of the government and other agencies. It can also help to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness and outcomes of these policies and programs.
• Social Action: Sociology can help to empower and mobilize the people for social action and movements. It can also help to foster social awareness, participation, and solidarity among the people.