Science, scientific method and its critique | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Science can be defined as an organized body of knowledge that is primarily based on empirical data or sensory observations. This information is then analyzed and structured in a way that makes it comprehensible and useful. The goal of science is to develop general explanations or laws that can be derived from these observations. To collect and process this empirical data, science employs a specific methodology.

Science and the Scientific Method in the Context of Social Sciences

Science and the scientific method have their roots in the physical and natural sciences, which have been successful in exploring the physical and natural world and establishing near-universal laws. The quantification of data in these sciences has allowed for exactitude and precise comparisons. Sociology, as a latecomer to the field, has also been influenced by these positive sciences, with early sociologists such as Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim advocating for the use of scientific methods in the study of social phenomena.

1. Defining Scientific Method in Social Sciences: The scientific method in social sciences is a systematic and objective attempt to study a problem for the purpose of deriving general principles. It involves a systematic investigation to find solutions to a problem, guided by previously collected information. Scientific social research focuses on formulating and seeking answers to questions about the social world, such as rural poverty, urban slums, youth crime, political corruption, exploitation of the weak, environmental pollution, and more. To answer these questions, social scientists have developed basic guidelines, principles, and techniques.
2. Types of Research in Social Sciences: Social scientific research can take various forms, including empirical research, library research, historical research, and social research. Empirical research involves observation of facts or interaction with people, while library research is done in a library situation. Historical research studies history or biographical research, and social research focuses on the study of human groups or processes of social interaction.
3. Characteristics of Scientific Research: According to Manheim, scientific research involves a method characterized by objectivity, accuracy, and systematization. Objectivity eliminates biases in fact-collection and interpretation, accuracy ensures that things are exactly as described, and systematization aims at consistency and comprehension. The assumption is that any statement made on the basis of scientific inquiry can be accepted as true and meaningful if it is empirically verifiable.
4. The Role of Theory Construction in Scientific Inquiry: Although scientific research methods depend on the collection of empirical facts, facts alone do not constitute a science. For meaningful understanding, facts must be ordered, analyzed, generalized, and related to other facts. Thus, theory construction is a vital part of the scientific inquiry. Scientific knowledge is a cumulative process, as facts collected and findings evolved through the scientific method are interrelated with previous findings and theories.
5. Inductive and Deductive Methods in Scientific Inquiry: The scientific method can be either inductive or deductive. Inductive method involves establishing generalizations inferred from specific facts, while deductive method involves testing generalizations by reasoning from general principles to particular instances.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

• Verifiable Evidence: Scientific research relies on verifiable evidence, which means that the observations and data collected in the research can be examined and checked by other observers. This ensures that the research findings are reliable and can be replicated by others, contributing to the credibility of the scientific method.
• Accuracy: Accuracy is another critical characteristic of scientific research. It involves describing the research findings precisely and truthfully, without exaggerating or distorting the facts. Accurate representation of the data helps maintain the integrity of the research and ensures that the conclusions drawn are valid and reliable.
• Precision: Precision in scientific research involves providing exact measurements and numbers to support the research findings. This means avoiding vague statements and generalizations, and instead, presenting specific data and statistics that accurately represent the research observations. The level of precision required in social science research depends on the needs and goals of the study.
• Systematization: Systematization in scientific research refers to the process of collecting data in a systematic and organized manner. By gathering data systematically, researchers can ensure that their conclusions are reliable and that they have not overlooked any relevant information. This approach also helps to minimize errors and biases in the research.
• Objectivity: Being objective is essential in scientific research. Researchers must strive to remain unbiased and free from personal beliefs, values, and preferences when conducting their studies. By maintaining objectivity, researchers can ensure that their observations and conclusions are based on facts and not influenced by personal biases or emotions.
• Recording: Recording data is a crucial aspect of scientific research. Since human memory is fallible, researchers must record all data collected during their studies to ensure that their conclusions are based on accurate and reliable information. Relying on unrecorded data can lead to unreliable judgments and conclusions.
• Controlling Conditions: In scientific research, controlling conditions involves controlling all variables except one and examining the effects when that variable is changed. This experimental technique allows researchers to determine which variable is responsible for the observed results. While physical scientists can typically control variables in a laboratory setting, social scientists often face challenges in controlling all variables due to various constraints.
• Training Investigators: Properly training investigators is essential in ensuring the reliability and credibility of scientific research. Investigators must be educated and trained in the research methods and techniques necessary to collect accurate data and interpret the findings. A well-trained investigator is more likely to produce reliable and valid research results.

Major Steps in Scientific Research

1. Defining the Problem in Scientific Research: In the initial stage of scientific research, the problem or the research question is identified and defined. This involves specifying the area of investigation, the issue to be addressed, and the objectives of the study. It is crucial to have a clear understanding of the problem and its relevance in the context of previous research and existing theoretical frameworks.
2. Reviewing Literature and Theoretical Frameworks: Before proceeding with the research, it is essential to review the existing literature and understand the theories and findings related to the problem. This helps in avoiding duplication of work and gaining insights into the subject matter. It also helps in formulating the research question within a specific theoretical framework, which guides the study and provides a basis for interpreting the findings.
3. Formulating Hypotheses: After defining the problem and understanding the relevant literature, the researcher formulates a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between variables, which can be tested empirically. It is derived from the theoretical framework and aims to address the research problem.
4. Research Design and Data Collection: Once the hypothesis is formulated, the researcher needs to plan the research design, which outlines the process of data collection, processing, and analysis. The research design should be appropriate for testing the hypothesis and should consider factors such as the target population, sampling techniques, data sources, and data collection methods.
   Data collection is the process of gathering relevant information and facts as per the research design. This may involve primary data collection through methods such as surveys, interviews, and observations, or secondary data collection from existing sources.
5. Data Analysis: After collecting the data, it is analyzed to test the hypothesis and draw inferences. Data analysis involves organizing, classifying, tabulating, and comparing the data using statistical tools and techniques. The analysis should be rigorous and systematic to ensure the validity and reliability of the research findings.
6. Drawing Conclusions and Testing Hypotheses: Based on the data analysis, the researcher draws conclusions about the research problem and tests the hypotheses. This involves determining whether the hypotheses are confirmed or rejected, and if the research has contributed to the existing knowledge in the field. The conclusions should also address the implications of the findings for the theoretical framework and identify new questions for further research.
7. Replication of the Study: Although a single research study may provide valuable insights, research findings are considered more robust and reliable when they are confirmed through multiple studies. Replication is the process of repeating the study with the same methodology to verify the original findings. This helps in establishing the generalizability and external validity of the research.
8. Importance of Scientific Research in Sociology: Scientific research in sociology has several applications and benefits, including improving decision-making, reducing uncertainty, adopting new strategies, planning for the future, and ascertaining trends. Due to the value of scientific research, many sociologists are engaged in research on a full-time or part-time basis, with funding provided by various organizations and institutions.

However, scientific inquiry should be conducted with caution, considering factors such as data availability, time constraints, and cost-effectiveness. It is essential to ensure that the research is relevant, rigorous, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field of sociology.

Critique Proposition

• Issue of Experimentation: Establishing precise relationships between variables through experimentation is crucial in scientific observation. However, in Sociology, experimentation is rarely possible due to practical and ethical limitations. Controlling human behavior in a laboratory setting is not only practically impossible but also ethically undesirable. Nonetheless, experimentation is not a necessary feature of a science, as evidenced by fields like astronomy where experiments cannot be conducted. Thus, the inability to conduct experiments does not automatically disqualify Sociology from being a science.
• Issue of Quantification: While some aspects of sociological phenomena can be quantified using statistical methods, much of it is inherently qualitative and not suitable for quantitative techniques. Even Neo-positivist attempts to apply quantitative techniques to sociological phenomena have had limited success.
• Issue of Generalization: Sociologists have not been successful in deriving law-like generalizations through their studies. This failure is due to the nature of Sociology's subject matter – human behavior does not follow consistent patterns like physical objects. Human volition plays a significant role in shaping behavior, and some actions are unique and unrepeatable. Furthermore, the inability to conduct experiments makes it difficult to establish precise causal relationships. Sociologists can, at best, establish statistical correlations, and their generalizations often take the form of statements representing trends or tendencies.
• Issue of Objectivity: Objectivity refers to a mindset where personal biases and preferences of scientists do not affect data collection and analysis. However, achieving objectivity is nearly impossible in sociological research, and sociologists can only strive to minimize subjectivity.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of What is Science & Scientific method

What is the scientific method in social sciences?

The scientific method in social sciences is a systematic and objective attempt to study a problem for the purpose of deriving general principles. It involves a systematic investigation to find solutions to a problem, guided by previously collected information.

What are the main types of research in social sciences?

The main types of research in social sciences include empirical research, library research, historical research, and social research.

What are the key characteristics of scientific research?

Some key characteristics of scientific research include verifiable evidence, accuracy, precision, systematization, objectivity, recording, controlling conditions, and proper training of investigators.

What are the major steps in scientific research?

The major steps in scientific research include defining the problem, reviewing literature and theoretical frameworks, formulating hypotheses, designing and collecting data, analyzing data, drawing conclusions and testing hypotheses, and replicating the study.

What are some criticisms and limitations of applying the scientific method to sociology?

Some criticisms and limitations include the issue of experimentation, the issue of quantification, the issue of generalization, and the issue of objectivity.