Concepts-Inequality and Hierarchy | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Inequality 

Societal diversity is a key characteristic of human communities, which can be observed in various aspects such as biology, psychology, and social factors. People and groups may exhibit differences in their biological traits, such as age, gender, and ethnicity. Psychological differences may include varying levels of aptitude, intelligence, and motivation among individuals. Socially, distinctions can be found in the distribution of wealth, authority, and social standing within a community.

• Social differentiation refers to a situation where different categories of people are treated equally, and one is not considered more important than the other. According to Dipankar Gupta, social differentiation is significant when diversity in human society is understood in a qualitative sense. In this arrangement, groups or individuals are not organized vertically or hierarchically but horizontally or separately. Language, religion, and nationalities are examples of such categories that cannot be hierarchized. India is an excellent example of a diverse country with multiple languages and religions, where differences are acknowledged but not ranked.
• However, the concept of social differentiation has limited success in understanding the organization of human society in reality, and an egalitarian society remains a dream. Inequality is present in all human societies, and power, prestige, and wealth are often distributed unequally among individuals and social groups.
• Social differentiation becomes social inequality when differences among people are evaluated in terms of superiority or inferiority, leading to unequal distribution of rewards such as wealth, prestige, or power. Hierarchy is a specific form of social inequality where individuals or groups are ranked according to some criterion, such as wealth, prestige, or power.
• Equality of opportunity is a political ideal that opposes caste hierarchy but not hierarchy itself. Hierarchy can be either ascribed (based on birth) or achieved (based on merit). For example, the Hindu caste system in India traditionally divides society into four castes and a fifth group of untouchables. This system involves a hierarchy of prestige, power, and wealth based on ritual purity.
• In contrast, open societies with equality of opportunity have hierarchies based on secular dimensions. In these societies, individuals' positions in the social hierarchy are determined by competition, and all members are eligible to compete on equal terms.
• Social stratification is a specific form of social inequality, referring to the ranking of social groups above one another, usually based on power, prestige, and wealth. Members of a particular stratum share a common identity, interests, and lifestyle, and their social rewards are distributed unequally.

Although social stratification is a form of social inequality, social inequality can exist without social strata. Some sociologists argue that western industrial societies, particularly the USA, no longer have a class system and instead have a continuous hierarchy of unequal positions. In this view, a hierarchy of social groups has been replaced by a hierarchy of individuals.

Inequality of Stratification: Cumulative and Dispersed Inequality

• Inequality of stratification can exist in two ways: cumulative inequality and dispersed inequality. Cumulative inequality of stratification occurs when a social group occupies a high or low status position across all dimensions of societal rewards, such as wealth, prestige, power, and education. Karl Marx argues that inequality tends to be cumulative in nature.
• On the other hand, dispersed inequality of stratification occurs when a social group enjoys a high status position on one dimension but does not automatically enjoy a similar status position on other dimensions of societal rewards. For example, the traditional caste system in North India was marked by cumulative inequality of stratification.

Status Crystallization and Status Inconsistency

• Gerhard Lenski introduces two additional concepts related to inequality of stratification: status crystallization and status inconsistency. Status crystallization refers to a situation where an individual or group is high or low on all dimensions of societal rewards, as seen in the traditional caste system. Status inconsistency occurs when an individual or group is high on one dimension but low on another, as observed in the modern Indian caste system.
• Status inconsistency results in feelings of relative deprivation, leading to protests and conflicts. For example, Dr. Ambedkar, despite his high educational qualifications, belonged to a low-status caste, which led to frustration, collective mobilization, and protests against the caste system. This feeling of relative deprivation is one explanation for the rise of the Dalit movement in India.

Harmonic and Disharmonic Systems of Stratification

• Andre Beteille discusses two types of stratification systems: harmonic and disharmonic systems. A harmonic system of stratification is one in which the norms and values of society legitimize social inequality, as seen in the traditional caste system. For example, the Purushasukta hymn of the Rig Veda describes the creation of different castes from various limbs of the primeval man (Brahma), indicating their status in society. This theological interpretation provides a divine justification for the caste-based hierarchy.
• In contrast, a disharmonic system of stratification is one in which the norms and values of society prescribe equality, but in reality, there is inequality. For example, the Indian constitution enshrines the values of equality, liberty, and fraternity, but contemporary India is marked by socio-economic inequalities, political marginalization, and discrimination. This disparity between the normative order and existential reality generates high aspirations among people, leading to feelings of relative deprivation, protests, and radical social movements.

Inequality of stratification can manifest in different forms, such as cumulative and dispersed inequality, status crystallization, and status inconsistency. Understanding these dynamics is essential for grasping the causes and consequences of social inequality in various contexts, particularly in the context of the Indian caste system and the rise of social movements like the Dalit movement. Additionally, recognizing the distinction between harmonic and disharmonic systems of stratification allows for a better understanding of the potential for conflict and social change within different societies.

Hierarchy

• Definition of Hierarchy : The term "hierarchy" refers to a gradation or ranking system where individuals or groups are arranged in layers, often linked to their statuses or positions within society. This concept is frequently used in the analysis of  social stratification.
• Hierarchy in Social Stratification: It indicates that individuals and groups are not treated equally but are ranked differently based on their social status. This ranking system helps explain  social inequality in society.
• System of Ranking : Hierarchy involves the ranking of statuses within society or organizations according to specific criteria relevant to the system. It provides a clear structure to identify different levels of social groups.
• Hierarchical Systems : Any social system that consists of distinct strata, or layers, is hierarchical in nature. The more hierarchical a system, the greater the  social distance  between the top and bottom positions.
• Hierarchy in the Caste System : In the caste system, hierarchy helps understand the  social inequality  and  social distance  among different castes. For example, the  Brahmins  occupy the top-most position with privileges, while the  Untouchables  are at the bottom, suffering from disabilities. Intermediary castes occupy positions between these extremes.
• Hierarchy in the Class System : Class systems are also hierarchical, where  capitalists  and the rich occupy the top position, the  working class and poor are at the bottom, and the  middle class  lies in between. Sociologists have discussed various divisions within class hierarchy, including six-fold class divisions.
• Importance of Hierarchy : The concept of hierarchy is essential in  analyzing social structure as it helps determine the  relative status  or position of individuals or groups within a society. It provides a clear framework to assess social ranking, privilege, and power dynamics.

Hierarchy and its Relations with Power and Authority

Hierarchy plays a crucial role in the distribution of power and authority. Typically, power and authority flow from higher to lower levels, as seen in bureaucracies. The control over people and resources is structured hierarchically, with individuals in higher positions having greater power and access to resources, while those in lower positions have less. This hierarchical organization is evident across various aspects of social life, including politics, economics, religion, and education.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Inequality and Hierarchy

What is the difference between social differentiation and social inequality?

Social differentiation refers to a situation where different categories of people are treated equally, and one is not considered more important than the other. Social inequality, on the other hand, occurs when differences among people are evaluated in terms of superiority or inferiority, leading to unequal distribution of rewards such as wealth, prestige, or power.

What is social stratification, and how is it related to social inequality?

Social stratification is a specific form of social inequality, referring to the ranking of social groups above one another, usually based on power, prestige, and wealth. Members of a particular stratum share a common identity, interests, and lifestyle, and their social rewards are distributed unequally.

What is the difference between cumulative inequality and dispersed inequality of stratification?

Cumulative inequality of stratification occurs when a social group occupies a high or low status position across all dimensions of societal rewards, such as wealth, prestige, power, and education. Dispersed inequality of stratification occurs when a social group enjoys a high status position on one dimension but does not automatically enjoy a similar status position on other dimensions of societal rewards.

What are status crystallization and status inconsistency?

Status crystallization refers to a situation where an individual or group is high or low on all dimensions of societal rewards. Status inconsistency occurs when an individual or group is high on one dimension but low on another, as observed in the modern Indian caste system.

What is the difference between harmonic and disharmonic systems of stratification?

A harmonic system of stratification is one in which the norms and values of society legitimize social inequality, as seen in the traditional caste system. A disharmonic system of stratification is one in which the norms and values of society prescribe equality, but in reality, there is inequality. This disparity between the normative order and existential reality generates high aspirations among people, leading to feelings of relative deprivation, protests, and radical social movements.