The Idea of Indian Village and Village Studies | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Village Community 

• Village community is the original abode of human civilization. The human civilization has been reared up in the cradle of village community. It has rightly been remarked that God made the country and man made the city. Village setting is the happy paradise of Nature who blesses it with innumerable number of peculiarities that make it evergreen and self sustaining. In course of time, the forces of industrialization and urbanization have brought about a new transf ormed form of human habitat called urban communities. But the village community till continues as the primary place of human living throughout the globe.

An Indian village scene

• Coming to Indian scene Gandhiji, the father of the nation used to say "Village constitutes the very heart of India." Prof. A.R. Desai is of opinion that “The real India lives in villages. It is the theatre wherein the quantum of rural life unfolds itself and functions. Like every social phenomenon village is a historical category ”. Emphasizing on stability and importance of village community, Charles Metcalfe writes 'Dynasty after dynasty tumbles down, revolution succeeds revolution, Hindu, Mughal, Pathan, Marathas, Sikhs and English are masters in turn. But village community survives'.
• Generally, village community consists of number of families living in direct interaction with each other in a definite territory, sharing a common folk culture, having a certain degree of community sentiment and a relatively autonomous organization, the structure and function of which is decided by the villagers themselves. Primary occupations based on nature are the dominant modes of occupation of such families. The most common occupations are agriculture, fishery animal husbandry and the ancillary activities. As Charles Metcalfe writes, "village communities are little republics having nearly everything they want within themselves and almost independent of any foreign relations." Thus, village community is a number of families living in physical proximity with each other in a definite geographical area. They share sorrows, sufferings and pleasure with one another and develop community consciousness. They enter into definite social, economic and cultural relations which distinguish them from others who do not belong to that village community.

Historical Evolution of Village Community: Its Birth

• From ancient times, humans have lived in villages. In the prehistoric era, when people led a nomadic or barbarian lifestyle, they were heavily dependent on nature and had no awareness of organized living or agriculture. They wandered in search of food and could not settle in one place. Over time, as their knowledge and skills improved, they learned to procure food and meet their material needs from a specific piece of land. This marked the end of their nomadic life and led to the establishment of permanent settlements, primarily along riverbanks and in fertile areas.
• The first village communities emerged in these fertile regions, which provided the necessary soil and climate for agriculture. As people discovered the benefits of using animals for ploughing and planting various fruit trees, their settled way of life became more permanent. According to Desai, the rise of villages is closely linked to the development of agricultural economies. The emergence of villages signified a transition from nomadic to settled collective life, facilitated by advancements in agricultural tools and techniques.
• When families began living together in the same area, they started sharing their joys, sorrows, and struggles, leading to the formation of a community. Initially, various ecological factors played a crucial role in the birth of village communities. These factors include land, water, and climate.

Ecological Factors for the Birth of Village Community

(i) Land

• The most significant factor contributing to the establishment of village communities is land.
• Families settle in a particular area because of the land's fertility. If the land is sandy, rocky, or uneven, it becomes challenging to practice agriculture, making it difficult for a village community to develop.
• For instance, human habitation is rare in the deserts of Sahara and Arabia. Similarly, large villages are uncommon in mountainous regions.
• Conversely, fertile plains such as those along the Nile, Thames, Ganga, Yamuna, and Narmada Rivers have given rise to numerous villages due to their arable land.

(ii) Water

• Water is another critical factor in the development of village communities.
• The saying "where there is water, there is life" underscores the importance of water for both human and plant life.
• Water is essential for personal use and agriculture. Without it, even the most fertile land becomes useless.
• Rivers are the primary sources of water, which is why many village communities develop along riverbanks.
• Water availability has also led to the establishment of small villages in desert oases.
• Throughout history, great ancient civilizations have thrived in areas where fertile land and ample water were readily available. Therefore, along with land, water is a vital factor in the growth of village communities.

(iii) Climate

• A favorable climate is crucial for human health and agricultural productivity.
• In temperate climates, people can live healthily and productively, while extreme climates can hinder natural and prosperous living.
• For instance, in equatorial and polar regions, people often lead nomadic lifestyles due to harsh conditions.
• Village communities in Europe, benefiting from favorable climatic conditions, tend to be more developed than those in India.
• The lower standards of living in India can be attributed, in part, to its hot climate. Thus, climate plays a vital role in the emergence and development of village communities.

Growth

• After humans mastered the techniques of community living, various social, economic, and political relations began to emerge. These relations evolved in complexity and intensity, eventually leading to the establishment of distinct institutions to manage different aspects of village life. Over time, systems such as social, economic, and political structures developed to oversee and direct various facets of village life.
• This gradual emergence of socio-economic and political relations transformed the village community into a self-sufficient social unit with its unique features and functions.

Social System

• When humans settled permanently along riverbanks, they began to form relationships with one another.
• Unlike other animals, humans possess rationality and the ability to plan for social life. This led to mutual agreements among individuals regarding fundamental needs, such as marriage.
• Over time, various types of relationships emerged, necessitating the creation of institutions to address diverse needs.
• Agreements gradually evolved into customs and traditions, giving rise to a complex social system with multiple dimensions.

Economic System

• Initially, individual families produced everything they needed. However, as the population grew, the demand for various goods increased, making it impractical for one person to produce everything.
• This led to the division of labor among different tasks such as farming, carpentry, and blacksmithing.
• With this division of labor, a system for the exchange and transfer of goods and services developed, giving rise to the concept of marketing.
• As these developments unfolded, new relationships and agreements emerged, leading to the establishment of a system for production, distribution, and consumption with its institutions and laws.

Political System

• Initially, humans lived in a state of nature without security for their lives.
• To protect themselves from wild animals and seek assistance during troubles, they formed agreements with fellow beings and adopted group living.
• This necessitated the establishment of rules and regulations for the proper management and improvement of group life, giving rise to political relations.
• As new associations and institutions emerged, the complexity of these political systems increased.

Thus, the gradual emergence of these social, economic, and political relations transformed the village community into a robust and self-sufficient social unit, capable of managing its unique features and functions.

Characteristics of Village Community

The village community has certain basic and specific characteristics. The nature of village community can be properly understood by an analysis of its characteristics. The important characteristics are as follows.

Agriculture as the Dominant Mode of Occupation

• Agriculture is the primary occupation in a village community. It is not just a mode of production but a way of life that influences every aspect of village life.
• According to Smith, "agriculture and the collective enterprise are the bases of rural economy." The terms "farmer" and "countryman" are nearly synonymous.
• MacIver states that the dominant occupation of agriculture shapes the mentality of the countryman and is reflected in his social life.
• Unlike urban wage earners who work under immediate supervision, villagers set their schedules based on the demands of nature.
• Whether a villager is a tenant, freeholder, or serf, their time, tasks, and work-rest cycles are dictated by natural conditions, not by a master’s orders.
• Thus, agriculture profoundly influences the entire spectrum of relationships in a rural setting.

Small Size of the Village Community

• Village communities are relatively small in size, which fosters a sense of belonging and primary group relationships among villagers.
• The smaller the group, the more intimate the relationships. In a village community, there is a deep, intense, and enduring type of relationship among people.
• The small size of the village community leads to a greater sincerity of interests in the affairs of fellow beings, intensity of community sentiment, and a strong sense of dependence on one another.

Dominant Role of Family and Neighbourhood

• The family holds a central position in the village community, acting as the main agent of social control.
• Families determine key activities such as marriage, religious ceremonies, and political affiliations, contributing to the stability of the village community.
• As MacIver notes, in rural areas where the family is dominant, group responsibility prevails, and an individual's status is often tied to that of the family.
• Neighbourhood also plays a crucial role, consisting of clusters of similar huts and houses.
• Neighbours are closely connected, helping each other in times of need. This reciprocal relationship fosters adherence to community norms.

Homogeneity of Life

• The village community exhibits a high degree of homogeneity, meaning that people are generally similar and share comparable ways of life.
• This homogeneity is primarily due to agriculture being the predominant occupation.
• While other occupations exist in rural areas, they are usually small-scale and closely linked to agriculture.
• For instance, the roles of carpenters and blacksmiths are often centered around agricultural needs.
• The dominance of a single occupation and the shared way of living over generations contribute to the relative homogeneity of village life.

Simplicity and Frugality of Living

• Simplicity and frugality characterize village life. Most farmers own small plots of land, and agricultural production is often limited due to various natural and human factors.
• Farmers work hard to produce enough crops to sustain their families. Negative behaviors like theft and misconduct are less common in villages.
• Villagers generally lead idealistic lives in accordance with family and caste norms, avoiding pretentiousness and boasting.
• They are not overly focused on material possessions and are content with what they have, contributing to their simplicity and modesty.

Faith in God and Religion

• Many villagers, being mostly illiterate and uninformed, have a strong faith in God and religion. Their close relationship with nature, which can cause significant harm and destruction, leads them to worship natural forces to seek protection from their wrath.
• This closeness to nature also influences farmers' attitudes towards land, animals, health, and natural disasters, making religion an integral part of rural life.

Group Feeling and Mutual Cooperation

• Group feeling and mutual cooperation are vital in village life. Villagers often prioritize the community's interests over their own, and cooperation is essential for agricultural activities, which require significant manpower.
• This cooperation is rooted in love, affection, goodwill, and a sense of fellow feeling. As a result, social relationships in a village community are genuine, deep, and enduring.

Common Ideology and Culture

• People in a village community share a common ideology due to their long-term residence in a specific locality.
• Over time, this shared living experience fosters common beliefs and views on politics, religion, customs, and cultural traits.
• Villagers typically have similar behavioral patterns and follow the same customs and traditions.

Lack of Specialization

• In a village community, there is little to no specialization. Even though different segments of the population may engage in various occupations, there is no specialization in the modern sense.
• For instance, agriculture is a common occupation across different castes. This lack of specialization results in less innovation and discovery, with people adhering more to traditional norms than scientific principles.

Low Density of Population

• Rural areas have a comparatively low density of population, with people scattered over a large expanse of land.
• In contrast to urban centers, where a large number of people are concentrated within a specific territory, rural populations are spread out over a larger area with a much lower population density.

Hard Working and Painstaking

• Villagers are known for their hard work and persistence. Their lives are closely tied to nature, and they endure various weather conditions without discomfort.
• The harsh realities of life and the demanding nature of agricultural work from a young age make them physically resilient.

Poverty and Illiteracy

• Poverty and illiteracy are prevalent in village life. Due to land fragmentation, agricultural holdings are small, leading to low productivity.
• Many villagers are landless laborers, and overall income levels are low. Villagers often have to make do with basic necessities like coarse rice and simple clothing.
• Widespread poverty limits access to even basic education, let alone more advanced technical or specialized education.
• Those few who can afford such education are often influenced by superstitions and religious beliefs, which hinder their pursuit of higher education.

Caste System

• The caste system is a defining feature of village communities. Villages are divided into various groups based on caste, which influences all significant aspects of social life.
• Caste norms dictate social interactions, ritual practices, and occupations, all regulated by caste Panchayats.

Less Intensity of Mobility and Change

• Social mobility within village communities is limited. Most people adhere to the same occupation, and changing one’s caste or occupation is generally not allowed.
• A person’s status and position are typically fixed at birth, determined by their caste and family.
• The pace of social change in village communities is slow due to the rigidity of customs, traditions, and values.
• Consequently, village communities tend to be less progressive. As Smith noted, the urban community resembles a swiftly flowing river, while the rural community is like a calm pond with gentle ripples.
• Zimmerman compared the rural community to still water in a container, contrasting it with the boiling water of the urban community.

Local Self Government

• In earlier times, villages operated as independent,self-sufficient, and autonomous entities.
• Villagers managed their own affairs through traditional institutions such as caste Panchayats and village Panchayats.
• Each village functioned as a "little republic," providing for all its members' needs.
  
  A village Panchayat
  Nowadays, a number of steps are being taken by the government to reorganise these 'republics', which have lost their vitality during modern periods of Indian history. These local self-governing bodies run the day-to-day life of village community through informal methods and thereby preserve its socio-economic identity.
  • Rigidity of Social Control
    In village community, the primary institutions play a very significant role in exercising social control. Such primary institutions are family, caste council, neighbourhood group etc. These institutions regulate the behaviour of individuals through informal means. Due to the rigidity of value system, customs, traditions etc, the observance of these informal rules becomes obligatory for members. There is little chance of deviation from it, and any such deviation is severely criticised and punished by the people in most informal manner.
  • Tradition
    The age old tradition is a peculiar characteristic of village community. Village community is custom bound and tradition ridden. The minds of villagers are so much pre-occupied with traditional beliefs and faiths that the diffusion of new ideas and beliefs take place very slowly.

Types of Village Communities

Village communities have developed differently throughout human history due to variations in climatic and historical conditions. These communities differ in their social systems, folk cultures, and traditions. For instance, there are notable differences between a Saxon village, the German Mark, the Russian Mir, the Indian Gram, feudal European villages, American villages, and Western European villages. Social thinkers and sociologists have classified village communities into various types based on several factors. The major types are discussed below.

On the basis of Residence

Harold J. Peake classifies village communities into three types based on residence.

Migratory Villages

• People in migratory villages live in a specific locality for months or a season.
• They gather food from natural resources such as wild fruits and animal meats.
• When food supplies are exhausted, they move to another location in search of food.

Semi-Permanent Villages

• In semi-permanent agricultural villages, people reside for a few years in a specific location.
• They migrate to another place when the land's productivity declines.
• These villages have a longer duration of residence compared to migratory villages.
• People in semi-permanent villages keep domestic animals like cows and goats but do not engage in extensive agriculture.
• They typically clear small trees and bushes, sow seeds, and rely on rainfall for crops.
• When the land fails to produce enough food grains, they move to a new settlement.

Permanen Agricultural Villages

• Permanen agricultural villages are characterized by long-term residency, often for generations.
• People in these villages develop farming practices, village organization, and social relationships within their own village and with neighboring villages.
• They typically do not change their place of residence or cultivation.
• Permanen households are established, with the number of households varying from a few to hundreds or thousands.

On the basis of Settlement

Meitzen classifies village communities into two types based on settlement patterns.

Nucleated Villages

• In nucleated villages, residents live in close proximity to each other in a cluster.
• The population density is high, and families lead a common life.
• Farmland is spread around the village dwelling, either in scattered plots or consolidated blocks.

Scattered Villages

• In scattered villages, families are dispersed over a large area of land.
• Villagers live separately in their respective farms, which are located away from each other.
• The dispersed nature of their homes leads to less frequent contact between families.
• Despite the distance, families are bound by common relationships, participating in shared festivals and functions.

On the basis of Organization

Villages can be classified based on their organization into cooperative, semi-collective, and collective villages.

Co-operative Villages

• In co-operative villages, land is individually owned.
• However, residents pool their resources for common cultivation and farming.
• Cooperative houses are often established to supply necessary commodities to the villagers.
• Examples include the Mosavidin type of village in Israel, cooperative villages in India, and Saxon villages in Germany.

Semi-Collective Villages

• In semi-collective villages, land belongs to the collective body.
• All means of production and resources are collectively owned.
• Villagers work together to produce food grains and other essential goods.
• Consumption is based on monthly or annual dues fixed according to the village's income.
• Income is not tied to the number of hours worked by individual families, but rather distributed based on family size.

Collective Villages

• In collective villages, all property is collectively owned.
• Villagers live in a communal settlement where all arrangements are made on a collective basis.
• Members contribute their labor to the common pool and receive all necessities such as food, clothing, housing, and education from communal resources.
• Facilities like common dining halls, stores, and kindergartens are provided.
• Support for the elderly and disabled is also managed from common funds, ensuring security for all members throughout their lives.

On the basis of Land Ownership

Villages can be classified into landlord villages and ryotwari villages based on land ownership.

Land Lord Villages

• In landlord villages, land is owned by individual families or a small number of families known as landlords.
• Landlords possess all rights over the land and rent it out to tenants.
• They impose rent on the land, which tenants pay, and give a percentage of the rent to the king or government while keeping a larger portion for themselves.
• Such villages existed in India before the abolition of intermediaries in the agricultural sector.

Ryotwari Villages

• In ryotwari villages, farmers own the land they cultivate.
• They pay rent directly to the government without any intermediaries.
• These villages are known as ryotwari villages, where land is owned by ryots or cultivators.

Classification of Indian Villages by S.C. Dube

S.C. Dube offers a comprehensive classification of Indian village communities based on various criteria:

1. Classification of villages according to size of population, area, land, etc.
2. Classification according to caste and racial elements.
3. Classification based on ownership of land.
4. Classification based on authority and privileges.
5. Classification based on local traditions.