Theories of Religion - 1 | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Functional Theories of Religion

Malinowski's thesis on religion focuses on the role it plays in maintaining social norms, values, and solidarity in small-scale non-literate societies, with examples from his field work in the Trobriand Islands near New Guinea. Unlike Durkheim, Malinowski does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole or religious rituals as worshipping society itself. Instead, he identifies specific areas of social life where religion addresses situations of emotional stress that could threaten social solidarity.

• These emotionally stressful situations include life crises such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death, which are often surrounded by religious rituals in various societies. Malinowski particularly highlights the role of religion in dealing with death, which he sees as the most disruptive life event. He believes that religion helps to manage the emotions surrounding death by expressing belief in immortality, providing comfort to the bereaved, and maintaining social cohesion through shared mourning.
• In the context of millezarian movements, the Marxian perspective views religion as a response to exploitation and oppression. Engels and Worsley, for example, argue that such movements represent an awakening of proletarian self-consciousness and can be seen as attempts by oppressed groups to change their circumstances in the present world rather than in the afterlife. While some millenarian movements do evolve into political movements, this is not always the case, as seen in historical examples from Medieval Europe and North America.

Emile Durkheim
In The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912), Emile Durkheim presents a functionalist interpretation of religion, arguing that societies divide the world into sacred and profane categories. Religion, according to Durkheim, is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things which are set apart and forbidden. Sacred things can be anything, such as a rock, tree, or house. They are symbols that represent something, and understanding the relationship between these symbols and what they represent is crucial to understanding the role of religion in society.

• Durkheim uses the religion of Australian aborigines, called totemism, as an example of the simplest and most basic form of religion. In aborigine society, clans are like large extended families, each with a totem (usually an animal or plant) that serves as its emblem. The totem is a sacred symbol, and Durkheim suggests that through worshipping the totem, people are actually worshipping society, which is the true object of religious veneration.
• Society is seen as more important and powerful than the individual, and thus, primitive man views society as sacred due to his dependence on it. However, instead of worshipping society directly, people create sacred symbols, like totems, to visualize and direct their feelings of awe.
• Durkheim believes that social life is impossible without shared values and moral beliefs that form the collective conscience. Religion reinforces this collective conscience by defining values and beliefs as sacred, thus providing them with greater power to direct human action. Religion also strengthens social solidarity by promoting group unity during collective worship. During these rituals, members of society express and reinforce their common values and beliefs, further integrating society.
• However, Durkheim's ideas have been criticized, with some anthropologists arguing that totemism should not be considered a religion. Moreover, while most sociologists agree that religion plays a role in promoting social solidarity and reinforcing values, they do not support the view that religion is merely the worship of society. Additionally, Durkheim's views are more applicable to small, non-literate societies with a single belief and value system, rather than modern societies with diverse subcultures, social groups, and religious beliefs and practices.

The Sacred and the Profane

The ideas of "sacred" and "profane" are essential components of Durkheim's perspective on religion. He believes that every aspect of human experience can be separated into two fundamentally distinct and contrasting categories: the sacred, which refers to things that are extraordinary and spiritually significant, and the profane, which encompasses ordinary, everyday experiences.

What is the nature of the Sacred?

• Durkheim describes the sacred as something that goes beyond ordinary daily life, possessing extraordinary and supernatural qualities that can evoke feelings of awe, fear, and potential danger. The sacred, according to Durkheim, encompasses religious beliefs, rituals, duties, and anything that society deems to require special religious attention. To approach the sacred, people usually engage in rituals like prayer, incantations, or ceremonial cleansing.
• Anything can become sacred if a community marks it as such, including gods, rocks, crosses, the moon, the earth, kings, trees, animals, birds, and symbols like the swastika. Once something is designated as sacred, it serves as a symbol for the religious beliefs, emotions, and practices embraced by that community.

What is the Profane?

• The concept of the profane refers to anything considered ordinary or mundane, existing within the realm of everyday life rather than the supernatural world. It encompasses ideas, people, practices, and objects that are treated with a sense of commonness, utility, and familiarity. The profane is not meant to interact with or take precedence over the sacred, as it is believed to contaminate the holy elements.
• The term 'unholy' or 'profane' also implies the denial or subordination of the sacred in some way. As such, attitudes and behaviors towards the profane are often associated with negative emotions and surrounded by strong taboos, as described by Kingsley Davis.
• A rock, the moon, a king, a tree, or a symbol can be considered profane, but they only acquire this status when they are defined as such by a community of believers. Essentially, something becomes sacred or profane based on the collective perception and belief of a group of people.

Nature and Qualities of the Sacred

According to Durkheim, the concept of the sacred has seven distinct qualities:

• It is recognized as a power or force.
• It embodies ambiguity, as it can be both physical and moral, human and cosmic, positive and negative, attractive and repulsive, and helpful and dangerous.
• It is non-utilitarian, meaning it has no practical use.
• It is non-empirical, meaning it cannot be observed or measured.
• It does not involve any rational or scientific knowledge.
• It provides strength and support for worshippers.
• It makes moral demands on believers and worshippers.

The sacred is not an inherent quality of objects but is attributed to them by religious thought and emotion. It does not contribute to the manipulation of natural forces and has no practical value. The sacred is not based on empirical knowledge or sensory experience, but rather involves a distinct break from the everyday world.

Different forms of the sacred can be found in various religious beliefs and practices. For instance, the sacred may be a supernatural being or god, as seen in monotheistic religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, or in polytheistic religions like Hinduism. The sacred can also be a ghost or ancestor spirit, as in Shintoism, where family ancestors are revered. Additionally, the sacred can be a moral or philosophical principle, as in Asian religions such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, which emphasize ethical and spiritual ideals. Totems, or symbols representing animals or plants, are also considered sacred in some primitive societies. Lastly, the sacred can be an intangible supernatural force, as in the example of mana, a force believed to enter a warrior's spear and contribute to victory in battle.

Durkheim asserts that sacred symbols in religious beliefs and practices do not refer to the external environment or individual human nature, but rather to the collective consciousness of society. He argues that human attitudes towards both God and society are similar, as both inspire feelings of divinity, moral authority, devotion, self-sacrifice, and exceptional individual behavior. An individual who feels dependent on an external moral power is not experiencing a hallucination, but is instead responding to the influence of society. Durkheim concludes that the primary function of religion is to create, reinforce, and maintain social solidarity, and as long as society exists, so will religion.

Functions of Religion

Durkheim and Spencer identified seven key qualities of sacredness, which include: recognizing a power or force, having ambiguous characteristics, being non-utilitarian, being non-empirical, not involving rational or scientific knowledge, providing strength and support to worshippers, and making moral demands on believers. These qualities are not inherent to objects but are attributed to them by religious thought and feelings. Sacredness is not practical or based on empirical knowledge, but rather represents a break from the everyday world.

• In various belief systems, different entities or concepts are considered sacred. For monotheistic religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, a single God is sacred. In polytheistic religions like Hinduism, multiple gods are worshipped. In some belief systems, like Shintoism, ancestor spirits or ghosts are considered sacred. Some Asian religions, such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, emphasize ethical and spiritual ideals as sacred. Totemic objects, like animals or plants, are considered sacred among some primitive societies, while supernatural forces, like mana, can also be considered sacred.
• Durkheim suggests that sacred symbols in religious beliefs and practices do not refer to the external environment or individual human nature but are a reflection of the society itself. The attitudes towards God and society are interlinked, as both inspire feelings of divinity, moral authority, devotion, and self-sacrifice. Therefore, the main function of religion is to create and maintain social solidarity. As long as society exists, so will religion.

Conclusion

Functional theories of religion, such as those presented by Durkheim and Malinowski, emphasize the role of religion in maintaining social norms, values, and solidarity. Religion addresses emotionally stressful situations and reinforces shared values and beliefs, strengthening social cohesion. Sacred and profane concepts help differentiate between extraordinary and ordinary aspects of life, with sacred symbols reflecting the collective consciousness of society. The primary function of religion, according to these theories, is to create, reinforce, and maintain social solidarity, ensuring the continuation of religion as long as society exists.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Theories of Religion

What are the two fundamental categories of human experience according to Durkheim's perspective on religion?

Durkheim believes that every aspect of human experience can be separated into two fundamentally distinct and contrasting categories: the sacred, which refers to things that are extraordinary and spiritually significant, and the profane, which encompasses ordinary, everyday experiences.

What are some examples of objects or concepts that can be considered sacred in various belief systems?

In various belief systems, different entities or concepts are considered sacred, such as a single God in monotheistic religions, multiple gods in polytheistic religions, ancestor spirits or ghosts in Shintoism, ethical and spiritual ideals in Asian religions, totemic objects in primitive societies, and supernatural forces like mana.

What is the primary function of religion according to Durkheim?

Durkheim concludes that the primary function of religion is to create, reinforce, and maintain social solidarity, as religion plays a crucial role in integrating and uniting society through shared values, beliefs, and practices.

What is the difference between the sacred and the profane according to Durkheim?

According to Durkheim, the sacred is something that goes beyond ordinary daily life, possessing extraordinary and supernatural qualities, whereas the profane refers to anything considered ordinary or mundane, existing within the realm of everyday life rather than the supernatural world.

What is one criticism of Durkheim's ideas about religion?

While most sociologists agree that religion plays a role in promoting social solidarity and reinforcing values, they do not support the view that religion is merely the worship of society. Additionally, Durkheim's views are more applicable to small, non-literate societies with a single belief and value system, rather than modern societies with diverse subcultures, social groups, and religious beliefs and practices.