Megalithic Cultures - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

A megalith is a sizable stone employed in the construction of monuments or structures, either on its own or in conjunction with other stones. The term "megalithic" refers to buildings created by people residing in various eras and regions worldwide. These structures were predominantly constructed during the Neolithic period but persisted through the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

Types of Megaliths

Megaliths are abundant worldwide, but they can be categorized based on their similarities into two main types: the "Polylithic type" and the "Monolithic type." In the Polylithic type, multiple stones are used to construct the megalithic structure, while the Monolithic type consists of a single stone structure.
The following are various megalithic structures:

1. Polylithic Types:

• Dolmen: A Dolmen is a specific type of megalithic structure, typically a single-chamber tomb constructed with three or more upright stones supporting a large horizontal capstone. Dolmens were often covered with earth or smaller stones to create a burial mound, although many have weathered over time, leaving only the stone framework intact.
• Cairn: Cairns are human-made piles of stones, often conical in shape. They are commonly found in uplands, moorlands, mountains, or near waterways. While modern Cairns serve as landmarks, ancient Cairns were erected as burial monuments or for practical and astronomical purposes. They vary in size from simple stone piles to intricate engineering feats.
• Cromlekh: The term "Cromlekh" is a British word used to describe prehistoric megalithic structures. "Crom" means "bent," and "llech" means "flagstone." Although it is now somewhat obsolete in archaeology, it persists colloquially to describe two different types of megalithic monuments.
• Cist: A Cist or Kist was used as an enclosure for deceased individuals and might be associated with other monuments. It was not uncommon to find several cists in proximity within a cairn or barrow. The presence of ornaments within an excavated cist often indicates the wealth or status of the interred person.

2. Monolithic Type:

• Menhir: A Menhir is a vertically standing monolithic stone, which can also exist as part of a group of similar stones. They come in various sizes and shapes, often with uneven and square dimensions, tapering towards the top. Menhirs are widespread across continents like Europe, Africa, and Asia, but they are most commonly found in Western Europe, particularly in Ireland, Great Britain, and Brittany. Their origins date back to prehistoric times and are associated with a broader Megalithic culture that thrived in Europe and beyond.
• Stone Circle: A Stone Circle is a megalithic monument composed of standing stones arranged in a circular formation, typically from the megalithic period. The stones can be arranged in a circular or elliptical shape or, more rarely, in sets of four stones laid along an arc of a circle. The specific type of stone circle can vary by region.

These megalithic structures offer a fascinating glimpse into ancient human history and the diverse ways in which people utilized large stones for various purposes across different eras and locations.

Megalithic culture of India

• In 1872, Fergusson published a notable work titled "Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries: their age and uses," which garnered the attention of scholars. Although Babington had earlier published "Descriptions of the Pandoo Coolies in Malawar" in 1823 and Meadows Tylor wrote about the "Distribution of Cairns, Cromlechs, Kistveans, and other Celtic, Druidical, or Scythian monuments in the Dekhan" in 1873, Fergusson's work on Megaliths remains significant due to its broad scope and comprehensive approach.
• In 1873, Breeks attempted to link Megalithic practices with customs and rituals among the tribal communities in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu. Previous authors had a strong bias towards tracing the ancestry of Megalithic builders to the Celts, Druids, or Scythians. Breeks was among the first to demonstrate that local megalithic traditions still existed in the Nilgiris.
• The first excavations of Megalithic monuments date back over a century ago. In the late 19th century, Dr. Jagor conducted the first excavations at the prominent Adicanallur site in the Tirunevelly district of Tamil Nadu. Additionally, Rivett-Carnac conducted minor excavations at the extensive site of Junapani near Nagpur in Maharashtra in 1879. Simultaneously, thorough exploration in the Madras region continued, leading to Sewell's publication of a list of antiquarian remains in the Presidency of Madras in 1882. In the early 20th century, Foote produced a comprehensive catalog of antiquities, including megaliths, in 1901.
• In the later years of the 19th century, Alexander Rea conducted excavations at several megalithic sites in South India. The renowned Adichanallur site was re-excavated in 1903-04 by Louis Lapicque. The diverse and distinctive nature of Indian Megalithic cultures was highlighted by Rea in 1915 when he published the Catalogue of the Prehistoric antiquities from Adichanallur and Perumbair. A decade later, Hunt published the results of the excavation of Megalithic graves in Andhra Pradesh in 1924.
• By the end of the first quarter of the 20th century, numerous Megalithic sites had been excavated. The first attempt to establish a chronological framework for South Indian Megaliths was made by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1948 when he excavated the Brahmagiri and Chandravalli sites in Karnataka in 1944.
• In 1962, it became apparent that megaliths, the massive stone monuments, were a distinctive feature of South India. Preliminary classification revealed regional variations. Wheeler's excavation at Brahmagiri challenged the belief that these monuments were as ancient as previously thought. Subsequent excavations at Sanur, Maski, and other sites confirmed this finding. While studying Karnataka megalithic monuments, A. Sundara concluded in 1975 that the diverse tomb types in different geological zones were more influenced by traditional affiliations than environmental factors.
• The megalithic builders at Hallur and Paiyampalli demonstrated proficiency in quarrying various types of stones and their skilled use in construction. While details about the houses and dwellings of these megalithic builders are still unclear, discoveries of iron sickles, plough coulters, rice, and ragi grains at Kunnattur and Hallur suggest a dependence on agriculture, with evidence of hunting as well, as seen in rock paintings at Hire-Benkal. Domesticated animals included cow/ox, goat/sheep, dogs, and horses.
• No evidence of literacy in the form of written language has been found from the Karnataka megaliths. Regarding the identity of the megalithic builders, Sundara's research in 1975 indicated mutual influences between Neolithic-Chalcolithic inhabitants of Karnataka and the megalithic builders who arrived around 800-700 BC. It remains challenging to discern racial characteristics from skeletal remains. Cultural relics, particularly post-holed cists, offer insights into their culture. Sundara suggested that all megalith-chamber types of tombs in North Karnataka and South India share fundamental similarities with those found in the Mediterranean and Western European megaliths. He theorized that South Indian megaliths might have been influenced by the Mediterranean region via coastal routes.
• Some insight into megaliths in Coorg comes from K. K. Subbayya's work. Excavations at Heggadehalli revealed unique types of burials, distinct from stone slabs containing a simple pit. These burials featured granitic slabs, some with pit bases and others without. These differences might indicate economic and social status among the builders.
• The extension of South Indian Megaliths to Vidarbha was discovered through excavations at Junapani, Khapa, and Muhurjhari. The evidence, including horse bits and various iron weapons, suggests that these sepulchral monuments might have been associated with a warrior class.
• Khapa, located on the left bank of the River Krishna, features stone circles, while Takelghat on the opposite bank reveals habitation sites. Takalghat habitation sites provide insights into the houses of these people, featuring well-made floors of rammed brown clay, lime coating, and mud walls with wood/bamboo posts for roofing. Radiocarbon dating places Takalghat around 556 B.C. The megalithic culture of Takalghat is believed to be similar to that of Hallur in Karnataka.
• Mahurjhari in Nagpur is considered a megalithic hotspot with over 300 stone circles. Different localities within Mahurjhari yielded various artifacts, including iron axes, daggers, copper bowls, bells, bangles, beads of semi-precious stones, black-and-red pottery, and gold leaves. Human skeletons were discovered alongside various objects, suggesting different social statuses among the buried individuals.
• Pune district also boasts megalithic monuments, primarily serving as memorials. These monuments were re-examined in 1940-41 and were found to be commemorations to the deceased rather than burial sites, lacking pottery and datable items.
• The discovery of megaliths in Banda, Allahabad, Mizapur, and Varanasi districts of southeastern Uttar Pradesh added a new dimension. These structures, termed cairns and cists, are sparsely distributed in the region's northeast slope of the Vindhyas and Ganga plains. Variations in construction materials are attributed to the vast distribution of megaliths. Funerary goods were placed in deep pits, covered by hemispherical cairns made of boulders enclosed by stone circles. In cist burials, a pit was dug, and a chamber created with upright stones. The graves featured black-and-red ware. Notably, Allahabad megaliths showed a cultural shift with the inclusion of iron objects such as sickles, adzes, arrowheads, and daggers. Differences in livelihood patterns were observed between the two regions.
• Koldihwa and Khajuri, on the opposite bank of the River Belan, revealed megaliths associated with Chalcolithic cultures, lying between the Varanasi and Kotla cultures of Allahabad. Iron is absent in the former, while iron fragments are present alongside microliths in the latter. Despite local variations, the use of Black-and-Red Ware remained consistent for nearly 1500 years.
• Megaliths were also discovered in Kashmir at Waztal and Brah. These sites featured scattered standing stones without a regular plan.
• Habitation sites are rarely found alongside megaliths, except for some exceptions. Recently, a large habitation site with stone circles was discovered at Naikund near Nagpur in Maharashtra. However, the ratio of habitation sites to burial sites remains low, posing challenges for studying settlement patterns. There is a need for more systematic excavations of habitation sites before megaliths are destroyed for construction purposes.
• Despite the establishment of an International Commission for the study of megaliths in 1960, there has been limited organized effort in India to understand the settlement patterns of megalithic people. Further studies are required to define the main regional complexes of Indian Megalithic cultures. These regional complexes are not mutually exclusive, and they share common elements and differences in ceramic fabrics, iron presence, and the concentration of specific megalithic types in certain regions. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive and systematic research rather than generalizations based on limited data.

Burial Rituals and Social Organisation

• The description of the megalithic culture suggests that these communities were deeply influenced by religious and supernatural beliefs. This is evident from the elaborate items found in association with burials. While different burial traditions might indicate diverse social and ethnic groups, there haven't been consistent regional conventions observed regarding the orientation of bodies or graves.
• Burial practices varied from complete burials to partial ones. In the Vidarbha region, horses were buried alongside the deceased, possibly after being sacrificed, which could have been a local ethnic tradition. The social organization of India's megalithic people can only be understood in a limited manner, as data on settlement patterns are largely absent. 
• Nonetheless, it appears that these communities may have consisted of various professional groups, including blacksmiths, warriors, goldsmiths, farmers, and carpenters. This inference is drawn from the types of grave offerings made. Additionally, burials likely involved the collective effort of the community, as the arrangement of massive stones in a circle, the erection of giant menhirs, or the placement of massive stone slabs on dolmens would have been impossible for just one or two individuals to accomplish.

Ethnic Affinity and Origin

• The origin of the Megalithic culture in India remains a subject of uncertainty, and a definitive answer has not yet been reached. Early European scholars proposed various theories, suggesting that the builders might have been Celts, Scythians, or related to Central Asian tribes. Some scholars attempted to associate them with the Dravidians. Interestingly, the practice of erecting megaliths still exists among certain tribes in the southern, central, eastern, and northeastern regions of India.
• When examining skeletal remains, particularly those from Brahmagiri, Yeleswaram, and Adichanallar, it becomes evident that the people of this culture had a mixed racial background. According to Sarkar (1960), the skeletal remains from Brahmagiri were likely of Scythian or Iranian origin. Gupta and Dutta (1962) reached a similar conclusion regarding the Yeleswaram remains, but the skulls from Adichanallur displayed different characteristics and affinities.

Chronology

Determining the chronological timeline of megaliths in India presents several challenges.
Various scholars have proposed different dates for the megalithic culture:

• Wheeler (1948) suggested a date around the 2nd Century B.C.
• Gordon and Haimendorf (as cited by Srinivasan and Banerjee 1953:114) proposed dates ranging from around 700 to 400 B.C.
• Seshadri (1956) dated them between the 6th century B.C. to the 1st century A.D.
• Sundara (1969-70) proposed a date around 1100 B.C. for Terdal in Karnataka.
• Sundara and Aiyappan (1945) extended the antiquity of the megaliths as far back as the Indian Neolithic times.
• The Chalcolithic-megalithic contact period in Maharashtra is estimated to go back to around 700 B.C., and megaliths in Vidarbha are dated to the 6th or 7th centuries B.C.

While the exact dating of megaliths remains a topic of debate, it is essential to conduct comprehensive research to understand the political, social, and economic context of the megalith builders, whether in Vidarbha, Andhra, Karnataka, or Tamil Nadu. Erecting such massive megalithic structures would likely have required the collective efforts of a community, rather than being the work of an individual or an ordinary family. This collective involvement is observed among present-day tribes that continue the tradition of erecting megaliths.

Erection of megaliths by some Indian Tribes

• The custom of erecting megaliths has been practiced by various communities in India from the Neolithic period through the Bronze Age and into the Early Historic period. Remarkably, this tradition still continues among tribal communities in Northeastern, Eastern, Central, and South India. While the exact reasons for erecting megaliths are not entirely clear, observing the practices of tribes that include megaliths in their religious beliefs provides some insight into the associations with these structures.
• Some tribes, such as the Gonds, Kurumbas, Morias, and Savaras, plant and worship stone menhirs and sometimes erect wooden pillars. They view these stone menhirs and wooden posts as representations of their gods or the spirits of the deceased. These tribes believe that these statues contain the souls of the departed, and they venerate and worship them through offerings. The specific beliefs and practices related to these megalithic monuments can vary among different tribal groups.
• For instance, the Morias apply turmeric and oil to these stones, perform buffalo sacrifices, and offer rice as part of their worship. The Savaras place seeds in front of the pillars and make animal sacrifices to enhance the fertility of their crops. The Kurumbas approach the megalithic monuments of their ancestors for help in overcoming difficulties, seeking the spirits' aid.
• The practices mentioned above illustrate that these tribal communities believe that the spirits of the deceased reside in the stone or wooden pillars they erect. These pillars are treated with reverence and offerings to ensure that the spirits are appeased, as they are believed to have the power to grant blessings or cause harm if not satisfied.
• In Tamil Nadu, there is an anthropomorphic statue known as Valiyar Daivam, which is considered the god of the Valiyar community. According to local tradition, the Valiyars were pygmies who, faced with an impending rain of fire, cut off their god's head to take it with them. This tradition suggests that certain communities view these megalithic anthropomorphic statues as representations of their deities.
• The practice of erecting megaliths, whether for commemorative or burial purposes, is still prevalent among many hill tribes in Northeast India and in Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar, Indonesia, and Thailand. For example, the Khasis and Garos of Meghalaya, the Tiwas and Karbis of Assam, the Morams of Manipur, and the Nagas of Nagaland continue to construct megalithic structures. These structures are often memorial stones or cenotaphs, preserving the remains of the deceased in stone sepulchers.
• While there are similarities between the megaliths of the past and those erected by contemporary tribal communities, significant differences exist as well. The modern megaliths are often associated with commemoration, whereas ancient megaliths primarily served as graves. Notably, certain features, like portholes found in many ancient megalithic cists, are absent in the megaliths built by contemporary tribes.
• Although megaliths worldwide are linked to death-related rituals, it's important to recognize that this commonality doesn't necessarily indicate a shared origin for different megalithic cultures. Instead, the specific practices and beliefs surrounding megaliths vary widely across regions and communities.

Iron Age Culture in India

• The study of Iron Age culture is significant because the Megalithic culture is an integral part of the Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent. The Iron Age in India followed the Late Harappan culture and can be divided into two main periods: the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture, which existed from 1100 to 350 BC, and the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture, which lasted from 700 to 200 BC. The Iron Age in India marks the transition to ancient history and is characterized by recorded historical accounts. These historical accounts are found in texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and other Brahmanic literature.
• Ironworking was a significant technological advancement during this period. The origin of iron in the Indian subcontinent remains a subject of debate among experts. Some tribal communities, like the Agarias of Madhya Pradesh, had knowledge of ironworking techniques and produced iron tools from surface ores using indigenous methods. These communities traded their iron products with local villagers, suggesting that they had possessed this knowledge for possibly several thousand years.
• The earliest Iron Age sites in South India date back to around 1000 BC and include places like Hallur in Karnataka and Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu. Technical studies conducted on materials from Komaranhalli in Karnataka, dating to around 1000 BC, indicated that the smiths at this site were capable of working with large artifacts, implying a long history of ironworking experimentation.
• Historically, the Iron Age in India is associated with the emergence of various kingdoms and dynasties:
  • Maha Janapadas (700-300 BC)
  • Magadha Empire (648-424 BC)
  • Nanda Empire (424-321 BC)
  • Maurya Empire (Pre-Ashoka) (321-272 BC)
• The Vedic period, except for its earliest phase in the Rigveda, falls within the early part of the Indian Iron Age, spanning from the 12th to the 6th centuries BC. The development of early Buddhism also took place during this period, around the 5th to 4th centuries BC.
• The edicts of Ashoka, who ruled from 272 to 232 BC, mark the end of the North Indian Iron Age and the gradual onset of historicity. South India entered the historic age with the Sangam period, beginning in the 3rd century BC. From the 2nd century BC onward, the cultural landscape of Northern India saw significant transformations with the arrival of the Indo-Scythians and Indo-Greeks. The periods following these developments, up to the medieval Muslim conquests, are traditionally categorized as the Middle kingdoms of India.

Gangetic Valley

• The colonization of the Ganga basin by iron users represents compelling evidence of a second urbanization phase in India. The urban centers that flourished around the Indus, Ghaggar, and their tributaries between 2600 BC and 1500 BC had largely been abandoned by this time. To understand the second colonization in this region, it's essential to examine the changes occurring further west.
• In Baluchistan, the earliest evidence of copper usage has been found at Mehargarh. However, occupation at this site was abandoned even before the mature Harappan culture fully developed. In the same general region, there's evidence of the transition to the post-Harappan phase at Pirak. Initially, Harappan influence can be observed at this settlement, but around 1370-1340 BC, the first pieces of iron appeared. 
• What's remarkable is the cultural continuity from the pre-iron phase, suggesting that the possibility of an invasion by iron users cannot be entertained. The houses at Pirak were made of mud bricks, similar to the pre-Harappan stage. Pottery from this period was coarse and featured appliqué bands and fingertip impressions. Terracotta figurines, including depictions of horses, camels, and humans, became more common. Another significant feature of this phase was the cultivation of barley and rice in the region. However, full-fledged adoption of iron technology did not occur until another two to three centuries later. The Iron Age in the western Indus region broadly falls within the time bracket of 1100-900 BC.
• In the northwest, a distinct culture developed, known from the Gandhara sites. These sites feature large grave complexes, and the culture is primarily defined by the grave goods found. Notable sites in this complex include Taxila, Charsada, and Timargarha. The pottery associated with this culture is characterized by a red burnished type. Interestingly, identifiable city structures in this region are not recognized until around 500 BC. Similar to Pirak in the southwest, in Gandhara, the use of iron emerged without significant changes to the pre-existing culture of the area. Furthermore, these pre-existing cultures exhibit unique characteristics and do not share notable similarities with the widely distributed features of the Harappan civilization.

Painted Grey Ware Culture

• The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is a fascinating cultural phase in the Indian subcontinent that encompasses aspects of both the Chalcolithic and Iron Age periods. This culture is noteworthy for its use of tools made from both stone and metal, marking a transition from early phases associated with copper and bronze to a later phase featuring iron tools alongside continued use of stone tools.
• The PGW culture is primarily associated with the Iron Age and lasted from approximately 1000 BC to 600 BC. It corresponds with the later Vedic period and is succeeded by the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture around 500 BC. While you may already be familiar with the PGW culture, it's important to emphasize its significance in the context of Iron Age cultures in India.
• The name "Painted Grey Ware" is derived from the distinctive pottery associated with this culture. This type of pottery was first discovered at Ahicchatra in Bareilli district, Uttar Pradesh, during excavations in 1944. However, its true importance was fully realized after its discovery by B.B. Lal during excavations at Hastinapura in 1950-51.
• One of the most significant aspects of the PGW culture is its association with the first large-scale and effective use of iron in India. This culture is primarily found in the Indo-Gangetic Divide and the upper Ganga-Yamuna doab, which includes the ancient Aryavarta and Madhyadesa regions.
• The PGW pottery was crafted from well-prepared clay and was made using a fast wheel. It was baked at a temperature of approximately 600 degrees Celsius under reducing conditions, resulting in a smooth, ashy surface and core. The distinctive pottery shapes include dishes with curved sides and bowls with straight sides. These vessels were painted with black pigment on both surfaces, featuring various geometric patterns such as dots, vertical lines, concentric circles, bands, and vertical and slanting lines. Additionally, naturalistic patterns like lotuses, leaves, bunches of flowers, and the sun are occasionally found.
• The people of the PGW culture were involved in agriculture, cultivating crops like rice and wheat. They lived in houses constructed from wattle-and-daub, a common building technique of the time. Notably, the PGW culture is credited with being the first to definitively use domesticated horses, which had a significant impact on the region's history and culture.

Northern Black Polished Ware Culture and the Second Urbanization

• The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture in India is a distinct Iron Age culture that followed the Painted Grey Ware Culture. During this period, which began around 700 BC, iron technology played a crucial role in accelerating the colonization of the middle and lower Ganga valley by farmers. One of the defining features of this culture is its characteristic pottery known as Northern Black Polished Ware.
• The NBPW period witnessed significant developments in the Indian subcontinent. It marked the emergence of cities and the formation of the first political entities known as Mahajanapadas in the Ganga plains around 600 BC. These Mahajanapadas were significant political regions and laid the foundation for future Indian empires and states.
• This period also holds cultural and religious significance. It is associated with the second major Hindu epic, the Ramayana, which has had a profound impact on Indian culture and storytelling. Additionally, the rise of Buddhism and Jainism occurred during the NBPW culture's timeframe.
• The NBP region experienced a second wave of urbanization in India. By 600 BC, several Mahajanapadas had been assimilated into the first Indian empire, known as the Magadhan Empire. Its capital was located at Pataliputra, which is situated in modern-day Patna, Bihar. This marked a significant political consolidation in the region.
• The Magadhan Empire, which emerged around 400 BC, was succeeded by the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryan Empire is well-known for its prominent emperor, Ashoka, who expanded the empire's territories to include regions as far south as Karnataka, as well as parts of Bangladesh in the east and Afghanistan in the northwest. Ashoka is renowned for his patronage of Buddhism and efforts to promote its spread within India and beyond, including Sri Lanka and other Asian countries.
• After a long gap of approximately 1500 years, writing reappeared during the NBPW culture. This script, known as Brahmi, played a significant role in recording various aspects of Indian culture and history. Notably, Buddhist and Jain literatures were written in the Pali language, and Ashoka's pillar and rock edicts were inscribed in the Brahmi script. Coinage in the form of silver punch-marked coins also began to appear during this period, contributing to the economic and trade developments of the time.

Southern Zone

• The Iron Age in South India, particularly in the Deccan region, developed its own regional characteristics during the period of 1500-1300 BC. Unlike Western Uttar Pradesh, which had distinct features of Iron Age culture, the Deccan area did not exhibit any special characteristics unique to the Iron Age.
• The Iron Age in South India is primarily known from a wealth of burial sites and their accompanying grave goods. These burials are often megalithic in nature, leading to the term "Megalithic Culture" to describe these Iron Age cultures. Additionally, the term "Megaliths of India" can also refer to the memorial and sepulchral stones erected by various tribal communities living across India during the historic period.
• In the context of South India, the Iron Age Megalithic burials are characterized by several patterns:
  • Large Urns with Bones: These burials typically involve large urns that contain the bones of previously excarnated (flesh removed) deceased individuals. These urns are often accompanied by grave goods and are placed in a pit, which may be marked by a circular demarcation of stones.
  • Cists: Some burials consist of cists made from stone slabs. These cists may be covered with a similar flat stone on top, and in some cases, they may have portholes carved into one of the chamber wall slabs.
  • Legged-Urn or Sarcophagi: Another common pattern is the use of legged-urns or sarcophagi, which encase the body before its actual burial.
  • Chamber Burials: Occasionally, chambers are cut into the compact lateritic floor, and the deceased individual's body is placed inside the chamber.
• There is considerable variation in burial practices across different Megalithic sites in the Deccan region. The arrangement of Megalithic markers on the ground, used to identify graves, can also vary depending on the specific burial system.
• One common feature in all Iron Age sites in Deccan India is the presence of Black-and-Red Ware pottery. The pottery types include carinated vessels, bowls with pedestals, spouted dishes, and conical-shaped lids, often equipped with a loop at the top. Iron implements found in these burials include flat axes with crossed straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spearheads, lamps, multiple lamp hangers, and arrowheads.
• The Megalithic builders of South India appear to have introduced a culture that was distinct from the pre-existing cultural landscape of the region. This led many scholars to propose the idea of a new population movement from the west. Notably, the traditional homeland of the Chalcolithic culture in West Asia did not practice Megalithic burials, making it an unlikely source for the iron-using Megalithic builders.
• Instead, evidence from coastal regions in South Arabia and the Levant suggests the presence of sarcophagi and cist graves during the Iron Age. It is possible that these people arrived in the Deccan region by sea routes. Unlike the builders of the earlier Harappan civilization or the second urbanization in the Ganga valley, the Megalithic builders did not establish urban settlements. Instead, they may have maintained isolated, semi-nomadic colonies where they bred and grazed horses for trade with emerging political centers in the middle Ganga valley.
• Ultimately, the Megalithic Iron Age in Deccan India remained somewhat isolated and self-centered, making it relatively easy for northern centers of power to extend their influence into this region over a span of 500 to 600 years.

Conclusion

Prehistoric Megaliths or large stone constructions dating before the advent of written history are found in huge numbers in all parts of India. The monuments are usually found in granitic areas. We still do not know exactly who the megalithic people were, whether they represent an immigrant group, or a local development. Since similar monuments are found in many places around the world, right from Ireland, Malta, West Asia, Baluchistan to Southeast Asia it is possible they represent a single group which spread all over the world. Among the possible groups are the Celts originating from Central Asia, who later became great seafarers: some group from West Asia like the ancient Elamites of Mesopotamia: the Central Asian “Scythians”, who roamed all over the world: a group of early Aryan tribes: and more fanciful, the Atlanteans who washed off far and wide.