The Mauryan Empire- II - UPSC PDF Download

Mauryan Administration

• The Mauryan administration was known for their triumph of monarchy in India. Kautilya’s Arthashastra has a detailed description of the Mauryan administration. This was considered to be the authentic source to draw an account about the Mauryan administration.Along with Arthashastra, Megasthenes Indika throws light at the administration, economy, trade, and society of the Mauryan times.
• The Mauryan empire which was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, lasted till 180 BCE. The Mauryan empire was spread throughout the Indian subcontinent except for Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Mauryan administration had the vast bureaucracy to maintain all spheres of life.

Mauryan Administration – State Control

• The Mauryan administration was a highly centralised administration.
• Though it was a monarchy form of government which Kautilya insisted on, he stood against royal absolutism. He advocated on idea that, king should run the administration with assistance from council of ministers
• A council of ministers called Mantriparishad were thus appointed for assisting the king.
• The council consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapthi and Yuvaraja.
• The important functionaries were known as the Tirthas.
• Amatyas were the civil servants who were appointed to maintain day-to-day administration.
• Rajukas were a class of officers appointed by Ashoka, who were responsible for rewarding and punishing the people.
• In order to supervise the spread of dhamma, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed.
• The Capital city of the Mauryan empire, Pataliputra was administered by six committees each consisting of five members.
• Two dozen departments of the state were maintained to control the social and economic activities near the capital city.
• In the Mauryan administration, spies were maintained to track the foreign enemies and officers.

Provincial and Local Administration of The Mauryas

• The empire was mainly divided into 4 provinces and their capitals were Ujjain, Taxila,  Kalinga  and   Suvarnagiri.
• Each of these provinces were kept under the prince who was scion of the Mauryan dynasty.
• These provinces were again divided into smaller units and administered.
• The districts were maintained by Rajukas who were assisted by Yuktas.
• Grahmini was responsible for village administration and Gopa had control over ten to fifteen villages.
• Nagarika  was the city superintendent. He maintained the law and order.

Army of Mauryan Administration

• The Mauryan administration was known for the maintenance of a huge army.
• It is mentioned by Pliny in his account that Chandragupta Maurya maintained about 9000 elephants, 30000 cavalry and 600000 foot soldiers.
• It is even mentioned that there were about 800 chariots during the Mauryan administration.
• Mauryans’ military was three times the strength of Nandas.
• According to Megasthenes, a board consisting of 30 officers who were divided into 6 committees were responsible for the administration of the armed force.
• The six wings of the armed forces are:
  • The Army
  • The Navy
  • The chariots
  • The cavalry
  • The elephants
  • The transport.

Economic Regulations of Mauryan Administration

• Adhyakshas (superintendents) were appointed to regulate the economic activities of the state.
• Agriculture, trade, commerce, crafts, weights, measures etc., were under the supervision of Adhyakshas.
• Slaves were employed in the agricultural activities. It is said that nearly 1,50,000 war captives were brought from Kalinga and were engaged in agriculture.
• Shudras served as slaves for all the three higher varnas.
• New lands were brought under cultivation. Shudras and cultivators were involved in it.
• Irrigation and regulated water supply facilities were provided by the state.
• Under the Mauryan Administration, taxes were collected from the farmers at the rate of one sixth of the production.
• The monopoly in arms manufacturing, mining were enjoyed by the state.
• The officer incharge of assessment was Samaharta.
• The chief custodian of the state’s treasury was Sannidhata.

Judiciary of Mauryan Administration

• Dharmathikarin was the chief justice at the capital Pataliputra.
• Amatyas were responsible for delivering punishment to the people.
• Ashoka’s inscription mentions the remission of sentences.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra as well as Ashokan edicts mention the prison.
• The Mauryan administration excelled in all the fields during the initial period of reign. No other empire of ancient India was known for maintaining such a vast bureaucracy. It was under the reign of Ashoka, people like Brahmanas turned against some policies and gradually the Mauryan administration was brought to end.

Mauryan period - Economy

• Agriculture was the economy's backbone during the Mauryas, however trade was growing increasingly significant.
• Cultivators appeared to make up the bulk of the population, and agricultural taxes were the primary source of revenue.
• Hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internal struggle gave way to a more disciplined centralised administration.
• Farmers were liberated from provincial rulers' tax and harvest collection obligations, preferring instead for the Arthashastra principles' centrally managed, strict-but-fair taxation system.
• Chandragupta Maurya created a unified currency for all of India, as well as a network of provincial governors and administrators, as well as a civil service, to ensure that merchants, farmers, and traders were treated fairly and safely.

Mauryan period - Agriculture

• The gana sangha system of community land ownership persisted in various regions of the empire.
• There are also allusions to state-owned lands known as sita fields, which were either cultivated directly by hired labourers or leased out to independent farmers under the supervision of the Sith Adhyaksha.
• In the latter situation, a portion of the harvest was required to be paid to the government.
• Aside from this, there were private landowners who had to pay taxes to the monarch. The entire community was in charge of the village pastures.
• Bali, bhaga, shulka, kara, and other levies are listed on the fertile Gangetic plain.
• According to Megasthenes, a quarter of the output had to be paid in tax. This was most likely the figure in the fertile region surrounding Pataliputra.
• The majority of Sanskrit writings, on the other hand, provide that the king might claim no more than one-sixth of the product.
• Because the fertility of the land varied from region to region, and it ranged from one-fourth to one-sixth of the yield, it is improbable that a standard tax was imposed over the whole territory.
• It was collected directly from individual growers by the king's officials without the use of middlemen.
• Furthermore, according to the Arthasastra, the amount of tax would vary depending on the form of irrigation infrastructure, ranging from one-fifth to one-third.
• The only Ashokan inscription that specifically mentions taxes is the Rummindei inscription.
• As a concession to the inhabitants of the Buddha's hallowed birthplace, Ashoka claims to have decreased the amount of bhaga (soil yield) to one-eighth (atthabhagiya).
• The villages that were immune from taxation were known as pariharaka, those that supplied soldiers as ayudhiya, and those that paid their taxes in grain, animals, gold, or raw materials as kupya.
• The communities also provided free services and dairy products in exchange for taxes.

Mauryan Society

• Internal trade in numerous sorts of products was robust among different areas.
• External trade was conducted with other nations, primarily the Hellenic (Greek) world and, to a lesser extent, Burma. Spices, pearls, gems, cotton textiles, ivory works, conch shells, and other items were the principal exports.
• Horses, gold, glass, linen, and other items were among the most common imports.
• The trade balance was heavily skewed in India's favour.
• Trade was a significant source of money in the post-Mauryan period, and it became a big earner.
• The eighteen most important handicrafts at the period were organised into guilds called sirenis, each with its own president, pramukha, and alderman, jettaka.
• Merchant clubs were formed to organise trade (sanghas). The sale of goods was rigorously regulated by the state, with a toll tax of one-fifth of the item's worth imposed.
• The merchants' profit percentages were set, and any extra earnings went to the Treasury.
• The sum was split between 5% for domestic goods and 10% for imported goods.
• Commodities made in the country were stamped at the manufacturing plant, while those imported from other countries were stamped at the toll gates.
• Because the toll was dependent on the worth of the product, it was most likely paid in cash rather than in kind.

Mauryan period - Trade route

• During the Mauryan period, trade routes followed either major roadways or navigable waterways.
• Both the west and the northern coasts of Burma were used for sea commerce.
• The north-south-west route (from Sravasti to Pratisthana), the north-south-east route (from Sravasti to Rajagriha), and the east-west route (which followed the Ganges and Yamuna river courses) were all important internal trade routes.
• The most important route was the Royal Highway, which ran from the north-west (in the Taxila region) to Pataliputra.
• This road continued east along the Ganga to the Tamralipti port. The most major seaports of India at the time were Tamluk (Tamralipti) on the east coast and Broach and Soparaon on the west coast.
• There appears to have been more traffic on the east coast sea route.
• The shipbuilding sector appears to have been heavily influenced by the government.

Trade Route

Mauryan period - Craft and Industries

• The boost provided to diverse crafts was one of the more important effects of India's political union under the Mauryas and the authority of a strong centralised government.
• In his seven-fold division of India society, Megasthenes refers to artisans and craftsmen as the fourth class.
• The Arthasastra establishes guidelines for artisans and craftspeople. They might either labour on their own or as part of a group.
• The latter system was chosen over the former.
• Furthermore, the state hired some artisans, such as armourers and shipbuilders, who were excused from paying taxes but were required to labour in the state's workshops.
• Textile guilds must have been well-established at this time, as the Arthasastra cites various locations around the country that specialise in textiles.
• Madhura, Aparanta, Kalinga, Kashi, Vanga, Vatsa, and Mahisa all produced cotton textiles.
• Vanga (East Bengal), Pundra (West Bengal), and Suvarnakudya (in Assam) were known for their white and soft textile dukula, Kashi and Pundra for linen textiles, kshauma, and Magadha for patroma, a tree-based fabric.
• Guilds were required to engage hired labour, which was divided into two categories: karmakaras or bhritakas, who were considered free labourers working for a regular pay, and dasas, who were slaves.
• Other important crafts and industries during the Mauryan period were metallurgy, pottery, woodworking, and stone cutting.

Mauryan period - Economy and Currency

• Due to the growing commerce, the use of cash, which had begun earlier in history, became more popular during the Maurya period.
• Money was utilised for more than just trade; it was also used to pay government authorities.
• The Mauryas' imperial money appears to have been punch-marked silver coins bearing peacock and hill and crescent emblems, known as pana.
• Copper coins with a punch mark were uncommon.
• The token currency was copper masika, and kakini were quarter-pieces of masika.
• The suvarn adhyaksa, laksamana adhyaksa, and rupadarshaka are state officials in charge of currency, according to Kautilya.

Mauryan Coins

Mauryan period - Other source of Revenue

• The Arthasastra mentions a state-owned mine (khani), as well as the production of salt and wine.
• Shipbuilding and the production of armaments, according to Megasthenes, were royal monopolies. In the mines and industries, slave labour was used.
• The state was also the largest trader, and officials such as Panyadhyaksa, Mudradhyaksa, Koshagar Adhyaksa, Pautvadhyaksa, and Sulkadhyaksa, all of whom worked under the Samaharta, created arrangements to control adulteration, ensure the accuracy of weights and measurements, and collect tolls.

Mauryan Empire: Art and Architecture

• Mauryan rule marks an important phase in our cultural history. Mainly in the period of Ashoka, the art and architecture was at its zenith and fall within the category of court art.
• Ashoka embraced Buddhism and the immense Buddhist missionary activities that followed encouraged the development of distinct sculptural and architectural styles.
•  Let us find out various art and architecture of Mauryan period which had connected to the lives, activities and patronage of ordinary people.
• The architectural remains have been found between the period of the Harappans and the Mauryas because in this period buildings are not made up of stone. 
• After the decline of Harappan civilization, long gap was generated and in the Mauryan period only monumental stone sculpture, production of masterpieces and architecture appeared. Therefore, Mauryan rule marks an important phase in our cultural history.

• Mainly in the period of Ashoka, the art and architecture was at its zenith and fall within the category of court art. Ashoka embraced Buddhism and the immense Buddhist missionary activities that followed encouraged the development of distinct sculptural and architectural styles. 
• Let us find out various art and architecture of Mauryan period, which had connected to the lives, activities and patronage of ordinary people. This can be classified into Stupas, Pillars, Caves, Palaces and Potter.

Stupas of Mauryan period

• In the Vedic period burial mound of earth and bricks which were erected by the Vedic Aryans were known at that time. 
• In the Mauryan period, mainly in the period of Ashoka numerous stupas were constructed and scattered all over the country.
• The stupas of solid domes were constructed of brick or stone with different sizes. 
• The Ashoka stupas were constructed to celebrate the achievements of Gautama Buddha. Like stupa at Bairat Rajasthan in the third century B.C., The Great Stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks and several changes were done. 
• The inner wall of the stupa was built either by terracotta bricks or by sun-burnt bricks. 
• The top of the dome was decorated by a wooden or stone umbrella which denotes the universal supremacy of Dharma. 
• Parikrama was also there by encircling the stupa.

• The Amravati stupa was built in the Lower Krishna Valley in 200 A.D. Nagarjunakonda Ghantasala stupas built in later ages in South India. 
• Stupa consisted of a cylindrical drum and a circular anda with harmika and chhatra on the top which remains consistent throughout with minor variations and changes in shape and size. Gateways were also added in the later periods.

Pillars of Mauryan period

• The most famous and mind boggling monuments of Mauryan art were the Pillars, the pillars of Dharma. These Pillars were not used for support and stand free in columns. 
• Two main parts of the pillars were the shaft and the capital.
•  A monolith column made of one piece of stone with exquisite polish is a shaft. Polishing art of the pillar is very unique and seems to be like a metal. 
• Usually animal figures are the capital figures and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylized lotuses.
• Capital of Mauryan period found at Sarnath near Varanasi, known as the Lion Capital. Being one of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture and built by Ashoka in commemoration of Dhammachakrapravartanan or we can say first sermon of Buddha. 
• The capital has four Asiatic lions seated back to back, which symbolize power, courage, pride and confidence. 
• The sculpture surface was polished and the drum was there on the bell base, i.e. Abacus has the depiction of chakra or wheel on all four directions and a bull, horse, an elephant and a lion between every chakra. It has 24 spokes and these 24 spoke chakra is adopted to the National Flag of India. 
• The circular abacus is supported by an inverted lotus capital. This has been adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India, but it does not have a shaft, the lotus and crowning wheel.

 Caves of Mauryan Period

• Instead of pillars, rock cut caves are also an artistic achievement of Ashoka’s reign. 
• The caves at Barabar hill in the north of Gaya and the Nagarjuni hill caves, the Sudama caves, etc. are the several examples of cave architecture. 
• The hills of Barabar caves were donated by Ashoka to Ajivika monks and three separate caves at Nagarjuni hills were by Dasharatha to them. 
• The cave of Gopika was excavated in the reign of Dasratha in a tunnel like fashion. The interior part of the cave is polished like a mirror.

Buildings and Palaces of Mauryan period

• The palace of Mauryan period had gilded pillars with golden vines and silver birds. All the towns were surrounded by the high walls with battlements, water ditches, bearing lotuses and plants.

Pottery of Mauryan period

• Black polished type pottery found in North India is an example of this period. It has a burnished and glazed surface. Kosambi and Patliputra are the centres of this pottery.

External contacts of Ashoka

• Diplomacy and geographical proximity primarily determined the foreign relations maintained by Asoka. Particularly, the century in which, Asoka lived was one of continued interactions between the Eastern Mediterranean and South Asia. 
• That is why most of Asoka's contacts were with South Asia and the West. It appears that this interest was not one sided. 
• A fair number of foreigners lived in Pataliputra to necessitate a special committee under the municipal management to look after the needs of welfare of the visitors.
•  Apart from these major factors determining the foreign relations of Asoka, one more parameter was the desire of Asoka to spread his policy of dhamma to distant lands.
• To begin with, Asoka in his foreign relations was a realist defeat and annexation of Kalinga. Also his realism is to be seen in Asoka not annexing the southern kingdoms (Cholas, Pandvas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras) while being satisfied with theirac knowledgement of his suzerainty. 
• He probably felt that it was not worth the trouble to annex the small territories too.
• In other foreign relations Asoka reveals as an idealist or a monarch who wore the robes of a monk. He sent various missions, though not embassies, to various countries. 
• Their main purpose was to acquaint the countries they visited with his policies, particularly that of dhamma. 
• They may be compared to modern goodwill missions helping to create an interest in the ideas and peoples of the country from which they came. Also, the fact that they are quite unheard of in contemporary literature or in later sources would suggest that they made only a short-lived impression.
• In spite of the above reservations, the missions must have opened a number of channels for the flow of Indian ideas and goods. 
• It is unlikely that Asoka expected all the kings who had received missions to put the policy of dhamma into practice, although he claims that his did happen. 
• It is curious to observe that there is no reference to these missions in the last important public declaration of Asoka, the seventh pillar edict. 
• In this edict Asoka mentions the success he had with his welfare services and the widespread propagation of dhamma but all within the empire.
• The territory immediately adjoining the empire of Asoka on the West and that Antiochus. There is ample evidence of contacts of similarity in cultures. 
• The use of Kharoshti in the Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra edicts in the north is evidence of strong contact with Iran. The fragmentary Aramaic inscription at Taxila and another of the same kind from Kashmir point to continue inter communication between the two areas.
• Apart from contacts with Iran, Asoka Empire was close to various Greek kingdoms. There are references to the Greeks in the rock edicts of Asoka. 
• On certain occasions the word used refers to the Greek settlements in the north-west and on others to the Hellenic Kingdoms. Antiochus II these of Syria is more frequently mentioned. He other Hellenic Kings where missions were sent were Ptolemy-II Philadephus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus gonatas of Messedonia, and Alexander of Eorius.
• Apart from these western contacts, tradition maintains that Asoka visited Khotan. This cannot be substantiated. On the other hand, Asoka maintained close relations with modern Nepal. Tradition states that his daughter, Charumati was married to Devapala of Nepal.
• On the East, the Mauryan empire included the provice of Vanga, Since Tamralipti was the principal port of the area, Indian missions to and from Ceylon are said to have traveled via Tamaralipti.
• The extent of the influence of Asoka's power in South India is better documented than in north India. The edicts of Asoka are found at Gavimathi, Palkignuda, Brahmagiri, Maski, yerragudi and Siddapur, Tamil poets also make references to the Mauryas.
• More Important were the contacts with Ceylon. Information is available in the Ceylonese Chronicles on contacts between India and Ceylon. Coming of Mahindra to Ceylon was not the first official contact. 
• Earlier, Dhamma missions were sent. A Ceylonese king was so captivated by Asoka that the top called himself as Devanampiya. Asoka maintained close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Relationship between Asoka and Tissa was based on mutual admiration for each other.
• What interests of the country or the aims of Asoka were served through his missions? Asoka primarily tried to propagate his dhamma and may be incidentally Buddhims. 
• He claimed that he made a spiritual conquest of all the territories specified by him as well as a few more territories beyond them. 
• This claim definitely appears to bean exaggeration. There is no historical evidence to show that Asoka missions did succeed in achieving their aim particularly when the dhamma happened to be highly humanistic and ethical in nature. 
• After all, Asoka was neither a Buddha nor a Christ to appeal to various people. Neither a St. Peter nor an Ananda to successful spread the message of their Masters. Not did he possess fighting men to spread his message just as the followers of prophet Mohammed. 
• Thus, when there is no follow up action after the missions visited the various parts of the world, it is understandable that no one paid any heed to his message.
• Evertheless, there is one intriguing point about the success of his foreign missions. In likelihood, the history of the Buddha and his message must have spread to the various parts.
• What did they need to? Although it is difficult to answer this question, it is of importance to observe that there are certain similarities between Christianity and Buddhism - suffering of man, Mara & Satan, Sangha Monasteries with Bikshus and Monks, and the use of rosary by Buddhist and Christian's monks.

Religion During Mauryan Empire

• The Mauryan Empire had a strong religious presence even before Ashoka converted. The spiritual adviser of Chandragupta foresaw a famine in the realm. The pillars Ashoka built, which bore edicts (proclamations) and stupas—places of meditation and significance in the life of the Buddha—were possibly his most notable efforts. Brahmanism played a significant role in the early years of the empire. Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism were all preferred religions by the Mauryans.

Jainism

• After retiring, Chandragupta Maurya converted to Jainism by giving up his crown and worldly riches to join a travelling community of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a student of Acharya Bhadrabahu, a Jain monk. Chandragupta is reported to have perished in Bhadrabahu Cave in Shravanabelagola.
• Ashoka's grandson Samprati supported Jainism as well. Samprati is claimed to have constructed 125,000 derasars throughout India and was motivated by the ideas of Jain monks like Suhastin. In the regions of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana, some of them can still be spotted.

Buddhism

• Buddhism was created in Magadha, the heart of the empire. Following the Kalinga War, Ashoka abandoned expansionism and aggression as well as the stricter prohibitions of the Arthashastra on using power, strenuous policing, and ruthless measures for collecting taxes against rebels.
• Ashoka had originally started practising Brahmanism but later adopted Buddhism. Ashoka dispatched a mission to Sri Lanka, where monarch Tissa was so enamoured with Buddhist principles that he embraced them himself and declared Buddhism the official religion, under the leadership of his child Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta.
• In addition to ordering the building of monasteries and schools and distributing Buddhist literature throughout the empire, Ashoka also dispatched several Buddhist missionaries to Asia, Athens, and South Asia.
• As many as 84,000 stupas, including those at Sanchi and the Mahabodhi Temple, are thought to have been constructed by him throughout India. Near his capital, Ashoka assisted in bringing together the Third Buddhist Council of the Buddhist orders of India and South Asia. This council worked hard to reform and advance the Buddhist faith. Indian traders embraced Buddhism and contributed significantly to its expansion throughout the Mauryan Empire.

The 3rd Buddhist council

• The Theravadin writings and histories state that Ashoka, the Mauryan ruler, hosted the 3rd Buddhist Council in Pataliputra. Mogaliputta Tissa presided over the council. The primary goal was to rid Buddhism of shady organisations and Sangha corruption. 
• Here, the Dharma Pitaka was written, bringing the contemporary Pali Tipitaka virtually to completion. Foreign nations got Buddhist missionaries in the progress of the council.

Mauryan Empire: Literature 

Literary Sources of the Mauryan Period

• The Mauryan Empire was not just known for its illustrious emperors. It was also known for its exceptional expansion in the fields of art, architecture, and literature, among other things. During this time, literacy underwent a significant transformation. Kautilya’s Arthashastra is the major literary source of the Mauryan period. As we know, Kautilya or Chanakya was Chandragupta’s mentor and advisor.

There are various literacy references for the Mauryan period. Arthashastra by Kautilya, Indica by Megasthenes, Puranas, Buddhist Literature, Jain Literature are famous literary sources of Mauryan period. 

• Arthashastra by Kautilya 
  • Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, was Chandragupta’s Prime Minister. He counselled him and contributed to the empire’s legacy. 
  • Kautilya is noted for producing the Arthashastra, a treatise on leadership and administration, in addition to being a political strategist. Arthashastra explains how a state’s economics and authority should be organised. 
  • Arthashastra mentions a city administration official called the Nagaraka, who had Sthanikas and Gopas under him.
• Indica by Megasthenes
  • The author of this book, Megasthenes, shared a good relationship with Chandragupta. Megasthenes was a Greek Ambassador but was impressed with the administrative functions of the Mauryas which he mentioned in his book. 
• Puranas
  • In Vishnu Purana, it is mentioned that the Nanda Dynasty was destroyed by Chandragupta. 
• Buddhist Literature
  • Texts on Buddhism like the Jatakas, Digha Nikaya, and Sumangalavilasini provide sufficient information about the history of the Mauryan Empire.
• Jain Literature
  • The Jaina Parishishta Parvan was written by Hemchandra. It describes, in detail, the various aspects of Chandragupta’s life including his embrace of Jainism. The Jaina Kalpasutra by Acharya Bhadrabahu captured the Mauryan history. 

Famous Poets and Writers in Court

There were many famous poets who contributed to the upliftment of literature of the Mauryan age, including:

• Kalidasa
• Banbhatta
• Vishakhadatta
• Harisena
• Kalhana

Literary Schools of the Mauryan Age

The arrival of the first century CE brought the emergence of different art productions at Gandhara (today in Pakistan), Mathura in north India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh. 

• Gandhara School
  • The symbolic form of Buddha got the human form
  • There was a confluence of Bactrian, Parthian, and local Gandhara traditions
  • Hellenistic features were introduced
• Mathura School
  • Similar to the Gandhara School, the symbolic form of Buddha got the human form
  • A bulk of the Buddha images were moulded on the lines of Yaksha images
  • Round and smiling faces were seen. Additionally, the heavy sculpture was diminished to give a relaxed feel
  • Garments gained visibility and the garments covered the left shoulder
  • Drapery folds are visible, and the head halo is beautifully decorated.
  • The ayudhas or weapons carried imagery related to Vaishnava (Vishnu) and Shaiva (lingas, mukhalingam) faiths
  • Over time, the artwork of Mathura spread to other parts of the world too A similar stupa-like structure is found in Sanghol, Punjab

Evolution of Buddha Images in the Mathura School

• The second century CE saw the rise of images that came out to be more rotund, fleshier, and sensuous
• In the late fourth century CE, drapery was reduced and the flesh was tightened
• Additionally, the volume of drapery was reduced
• The fifth and sixth centuries CE transferred drapery into sculptural mass
• The garments seen in the images of the Buddha came with a transparent aspect

Sarnath School 

• Two of the most prominent centres of Post-Mauryan art were Sarnath and Kosambi. 
• Most Buddha images came with plain and transparent drapery, covering both the shoulders. 
• The halo had minimal ornamentation.
• Devnimori in Gujarat is one of the most important sites outside the Gangetic valley.

The Mauryan Empire's decline

Ashoka's rule came to an end in 232 BCE, marking the start of the Mauryan empire's collapse. A number of events caused the huge empire's collapse and demise, namely:

• Buddhist Reaction: Despite adopting a policy of religious tolerance, Ashoka opposed the killing of animals and pets. The Brahmanical society, which depended on the offerings made in the name of sacrifices, suffered due to Ashoka's anti-sacrifice attitude. As a result, the Brahmanas formed some sort of animosity toward Ashoka.
• Economic crisis: The Mauryan empire maintained the greatest army, resulting in significant expenditures for paying the soldiers and officials, which burdened the economy.
• Negative rule: Ashoka instructed the mahamatras to refrain from torturing the populace without justification under Bindusara's rule. To solve this problem, he instituted officer rotation in Ujjain, Taxila, and Tosali. However, the peripheral regions were still under persecution.
• Dissemination of new knowledge: This material knowledge acquired from the Magadha served as the foundation for the founding and expansion of other kingdoms like the Shungas, Kanvas, and Chetis.
• North-West Frontier Ignorance: Ashoka was involved with both domestic and international missionary endeavours. In starting, the Greeks were reaching India and attacking north Afghanistan, led by several invasions. Pushyamitra Shunga, the ruler of the Shunga people, finally brought an end to the Mauryan empire. He overthrew the last member of the dynasty to grab the throne at Pataliputra (Brihadratha). The Shungas retain the Brahmanical way of life's practices and laws. The Kanvas brought up the Shungas.