Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India- I - UPSC PDF Download

Kharavela

• Maharaja Mahameghavahana Kharavela was an eminent king of ancient India, known for being the first great historical ruler of ancient Kalinga, a region located in present-day Odisha, India. Belonging to the Chetaraja-Vamsa dynasty, Kharavela was also referred to as Kalingadhipati, meaning the Lord of Kalinga.
• Kharavela's life and personality can be understood through the Hatigumpha Inscription, an ancient record found in India. According to the inscription, Kharavela was a person with many auspicious signs on his body, possessing numerous qualities, and having a handsome appearance with a brown complexion. During the first 15 years of his life, he engaged in typical childhood games and activities designed for royal princes, which were aimed at preparing them for their future roles as rulers.

As the Crown Prince:

• At the age of 15, Kharavela assumed the role of Yuvaraja, or Crown Prince, taking on the responsibilities of royalty. By this time, he was already well-versed in five key subjects: Lekha (writing), Rupa (coinage), Ganana (arithmetic), Vyavahara (law), and Vidhi (procedure). Additionally, he had knowledge in various other arts.
• Kharavela's education, as described in the Hatigumpha Inscription, provides insight into the educational system for royalty in ancient India. A future king was required to undergo a thorough education in subjects essential for their royal duties. This is also reflected in ancient works such as Kautilya's Arthashastra.
• The term Lekha refers to more than just basic writing; it encompasses the methods of state correspondence necessary for a king to effectively manage his administration. Rupa, the science of currency or money, was crucial for understanding the economic aspects of the kingdom. Ganana, or arithmetic, was crucial for administrators in various aspects of governance. Vyavahara, or law, covered the knowledge of the judiciary system and established laws of the land. Vidhi, or procedure, was a broad subject that included customs, established rules, and various regulations related to Niyama, Samstha, or Dharmasastra.
• With a strong educational foundation, Kharavela gained practical administrative experience as the Crown Prince, deepening his understanding of these subjects. He served in this role for nine years before being crowned King of Kalinga at the age of 24, as he was no longer considered a minor. Kharavela began his reign as a king from the third generation of his royal dynasty, leading a prosperous and successful rule.

As the King:

• Kharavela, the King of Kalinga, focused on fortifying and reconstructing his capital city, Kalinganagari, which had been damaged by a severe storm. He improved the city's infrastructure and beautified its surroundings to please his subjects. Kharavela's capital, Kalinganagari, was possibly situated near modern-day Bhubaneswar, with archaeological evidence suggesting the ancient city's ruins may lie within the vicinity of the Udayagiri Khandagiri hills. Moreover, Kharavela was known for his patronage of the arts, especially music, and organized numerous festivals and performances for his people.
• Under Kharavela's reign, the army of Kalinga expanded and demonstrated its power through military invasions of the south, eventually leading to a conflict with the Satavahanas of the Deccan region. The defeat of the Rashtrika and Bhojaka chiefs further expanded Kalinga's influence in the Deccan, incorporating a large part of the region into the Kalinga Empire. Kharavela also focused on charitable activities for his subjects, remitting taxes and providing for their welfare.
• Kharavela's military campaigns extended to the north, where his forces marched towards Rajagriha and demolished the fort of Gorathagiri, causing fear among the people of Pataliputra. The Indo-Greek invaders, advancing towards Magadha, were also forced to face Kharavela's powerful army. These victories in the north led to the construction of the Great Victory Palace in Kalinganagari to commemorate Kharavela's achievements.
• In the tenth year of his reign, Kharavela led a second invasion of the north, followed by a third invasion in the twelfth year. These campaigns brought further territories under Kalinga's control and forced the ruling king of Magadha, Brihaspatimitra, to surrender. Kharavela's rule expanded Kalinga's influence over a large part of India, elevating the kingdom to the status of an empire.
• The Hatigumpha Inscription, which provides an account of Kharavela's reign, concludes with a description of his religious activities in his thirteenth regnal year. After achieving numerous victories and expanding Kalinga's influence, Kharavela may have devoted the remainder of his life to religious pursuits. Regardless, his reign left an indelible mark on the history of Kalinga and ancient India, earning him the title of 'Chakravarti' monarch.

Satavahanas

Introduction

• The Satavahana dynasty was an influential Indian family that, according to some interpretations based on the Puranas, originated from the Andhra tribe. They were the first dynasty from the Deccan region to establish an empire in Daksinapatha, or the southern region of India. At the peak of their power, the Satavahanas controlled vast territories in western and central India.
• Based on evidence from the Puranas, the rise of the Satavahana dynasty can be traced back to the late 1st century BCE. However, some experts believe their origins date back to the 3rd century BCE. The Satavahanas played a significant role in the post-Mauryan era, and much of our understanding of this dynasty comes from inscriptions and numismatic evidence discovered in areas such as Nasik and Nanaghat.

Political History

• The Satavahana dynasty rose to prominence in the aftermath of the Mauryan Empire's decline and disintegration around the first half of the 2nd century BCE. The Andhra region and the Deccan at large, which had been under the Mauryans' control, came under the rule of the Satavahanas and Chedi rulers from Odisha. Puranic records indicate that Simuka, the first Satavahana king, began his reign around 230 BCE.
• The history of an empire is often marked by its conflicts with other contemporary powers, and for the Satavahanas, the Sakas from Seistan posed a constant threat. The Sakas' expansion at the expense of the Satavahanas likely occurred between AD 40-80. However, Gotami-putra Satakarni, who ascended to the throne in 106 AD, is often credited with restoring the Satavahanas' fortunes. He is described as the destroyer of the Sakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas.
• According to the Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri, Satakarni's rule stretched from Malwa and Saurashtra in the north to the Krishna river in the south, and from Berar in the east to the Konkan region in the west. Satakarni's son, Vaishishtiputra Pulumavi, succeeded him and ruled from approximately AD 130-159. He was followed by Yajnashri Satakarni, the last significant Satavahana ruler, who reigned from 170-199 CE.
• After Yajnashri Satakarni's reign, the Satavahana Empire gradually declined for reasons that remain unclear. It is possible that the subsequent rulers were unable to maintain control over their feudatories, who may have grown more powerful. Ultimately, the Satavahana Empire came to an end around the mid-3rd century BCE.
• Following the fall of the Satavahanas, various dynasties emerged in the region, including the Abhiras in Maharashtra, Kadambas in Mysore, Vakatakas in the Deccan, and Bruhatpalayanas in Andhra Pradesh. Later, the Vishnukundins and Chalukyas rose to prominence in the areas that had previously been controlled by the Satavahanas.

Administration

• The Satavahana polity was extensively decentralized, as local administration was left largely to feudatories subject to the general control of royal officials.
• The king was at the apex of the administrative hierarchy and considered the guardian of the established social order.
• Feudatories were of three grades:
  • Rajas(who stuck coins in their names)
  • Mahanhojas and Maharathis. These were skilled in warfare and had a lot of clout in the administrative set-up.
  • Mahasenapati
• Further, the state was divided into aharas, each being governed by a minister called Amatya.
• The villages came below these administrative divisions, and came to be headed by a gramika.
• Trade also formed a critical component of the Satavahana economy.
• Sopara and Bharuch were import trading outposts.
• Imports included luxuries like wine, cloth, choice unguents, glass and sweet clover.
• Exports were common cloth, cornelian, muslin and mallow cloth. Each group of specialized traders was organized into a guild, and each guild in turn had a Sethi and an office called

Economy

• The Satavahanas played a significant role in the economic expansion of their time, benefiting from the intensification of agriculture, increased production of various commodities, and engaging in trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent. During their reign, numerous large settlements emerged in fertile regions, particularly along major rivers.
• Agricultural land saw considerable growth as a result of deforestation and the development of irrigation reservoirs. The Satavahanas' control over the Indian coastline enabled them to dominate the burgeoning trade with the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an ancient navigation guide, mentions two significant Satavahana trading centers: Pratishthana and Tagara. Other vital urban centers of the time included Kondapur, Banavasi, and Madhavpur.

Culture and religion

• The Satavahanas made substantial contributions to Indian culture as a whole. They were the first Indian kings to grant land to those practicing Buddhism and Brahmanism. Historians believe that the Satavahanas initially belonged to a lower caste, but as they gained control over the Deccan region, they solidified their Brahminical status. This is evident in a Nasik inscription where Gotami-putra Satkarni, a Satavahana ruler, claimed the title of Kshatriyadarpa Mardana (Destroyer of the Pride of Kshatriyas).
• Another notable Satavahana ruler, Hala, is said to have composed a treatise called Saptasati, which begins with a passage praising Shiva. The treatise also mentions the construction of temples for Gauri and the practice of fire and water rituals. Overall, both inscriptions and Puranic evidence clearly demonstrate the efforts made by the Satavahanas to revive Vedic Brahmanism in the Deccan region. During this period, Sage Vidnyaneshwar also wrote a commentary on the Yadnyavalkya Smriti.
• One of the most interesting practices introduced by the Satavahanas was the use of metronymics, where the names of emperors were often derived from their maternal lineage. Examples of this include Gautami-putra and Vaishishti-putra. However, it would be an oversimplification to assume that Satavahana society was entirely matriarchal or matrilineal. It does, though, offer some insight into the status of women in India at the time, which may have been higher than in other parts of the country or even the world.
• Sculptures from the period depict women worshipping Buddhist symbols, participating in assemblies, and entertaining guests alongside their husbands. Furthermore, many women granted land to monks, indicating that they had a significant degree of autonomy.

Language

• Most of the Satavahana inscriptions and coin legends are in a Middle Indo-Aryan language.
• This language has been termed “Prakrit” by some modern scholars, however conflict still exists to the reference language.
• The Satvahanas also used Sanskrit in political inscriptions, but rarely.
• The Satavahanas also issued bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan language on one side, and Tamil language on the other side.

Coinage

• The Satavahanas were the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated.
• Thousands of lead, and copper Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and silver coins are also available.

Architecture

• The Amaravati Stupa sculptures showcase the architectural advancements made during the Satavahana era. This period saw the construction of numerous Buddhist stupas, with the most notable ones being the 95-feet tall Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa. Other significant stupas were built in locations such as Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Gantasala, Bhattiprolu, and Shri Parvatam.
• The Satavahana dynasty also patronized the famous Ajanta Caves, particularly Caves IX and X, which contain remarkable paintings. The artistic expressions found in these caves can be traced back to the Satavahana period. Furthermore, the dynasty contributed to the renovation and enlargement of Ashokan Stupas, replacing earlier brick and wood structures with more durable stone works. Overall, the Satavahana period was marked by significant developments in architecture, particularly in the realm of Buddhist monuments.

Paintings

• The oldest surviving examples of Indian paintings, aside from prehistoric rock art, are the Satavahana paintings found in the Ajanta Caves. Unfortunately, these paintings have suffered significant damage due to natural elements and vandalism over time. 
• Only a few remnants of the Satavahana art can still be seen in Caves No. 9 and 10, both of which are chaitya-grihas containing stupas.

Legacy

• The Satavahanas made significant contributions to the cultural, religious, and political landscape of ancient and early medieval India. Their rich legacy was inherited and carried forward by numerous other lineages during this period.
• One of their most notable achievements was the revival of Vedic Brahmanism and the associated rituals, such as the Ashvamedha Yajna. This helped to strengthen the cultural and religious fabric of the region and played a crucial role in shaping the religious practices that followed.
• The Satavahanas also demonstrated a remarkable ability to assimilate different faiths, which contributed to the diverse and inclusive nature of their empire. Their military prowess and strategic trading capabilities further solidified their status as one of the most influential empires in the history of the Deccan region, and more broadly, the Indian subcontinent.
• Overall, the Satavahana Empire's achievements in the realms of religion, military power, and trade have left an indelible mark on the history of the region and continue to be celebrated as important milestones in the development of the cultural and political landscape of ancient India.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India- I

Who were the Satavahanas and when did they rule in ancient India?

The Satavahanas were an Indian dynasty that emerged in the post-Mauryan period, around the 1st century BCE. They ruled over the Deccan region of India and were the first Deccanese dynasty to build an empire in Daksinapatha, or the southern region. Their rule extended until the mid-3rd century CE.

Which territories did the Satavahana Empire encompass?

At the height of their power, the Satavahanas held distant areas of western and central India. Their rule extended from Malwa and Saurashtra in the north to the Krishna river in the south, and from Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west.

What were the significant contributions of the Satavahanas to Indian culture and religion?

The Satavahanas made significant contributions to Indian culture by reviving Vedic Brahmanism and giving royal grants of land to those practicing Buddhism and Brahmanism. They also constructed numerous Buddhist stupas, such as those at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. Additionally, the Satavahanas significantly impacted Indian art and architecture, as seen in the sculptures of the Amaravati Stupa and the paintings in the Ajanta Caves.

What was the administrative structure and economy of the Satavahana Empire?

The Satavahana polity was extensively decentralized, with local administration being largely left to feudatories under the general control of royal officials. The state was divided into aharas, governed by ministers called Amatyas, and villages headed by a Gramika. The Satavahanas also participated in and benefited from economic expansion through agriculture, increased production of other commodities, and trade within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.

What is the significance of the Satavahana coinage and language?

The Satavahanas were the first Indian kings to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, a practice derived from the Western Kshatrapas. Their inscriptions and coin legends are primarily in a Middle Indo-Aryan language, with some inscriptions in Sanskrit and bilingual coins featuring Middle Indo-Aryan on one side and Tamil on the other side.