Types of Political Organizations | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Basic Types

• Anthropologists have been studying the political systems of primitive societies since the early 20th century. A significant development in the systematic study of tribal political systems occurred in 1940 with the publication of "African Political System," edited by Meyer Fortes and Edward Evans-Pritchard. They identified three basic political systems: the band, the stateless society, and the state. Further research since the 1950s has revealed that there are two primary types of political organizations among tribal societies: uncentralized and centralized, with sub-types of these basic types being more clearly defined since the 1960s.
• The centralized political organization is a system with a single, central authority. In contrast, an uncentralized political organization lacks a central authority governing the entire tribal society. The uncentralized political organization is also known as a stateless or acephalous political organization, while the centralized political organization is referred to as a non-acephalous political organization.
• In summary, anthropologists have been investigating primitive societies' political systems for over a century, identifying two main types of political organizations among tribal societies: centralized and uncentralized. Centralized political organizations have a single authority governing the entire society, while uncentralized organizations lack such centralized control. These distinctions have helped researchers better understand the complexities of tribal political systems. 

Sub Types

• The political systems can be divided into centralized and decentralized types, each with several subcategories. In a centralized political organization, the band structure is the simplest form. In this type, each band within a tribe acts as a separate political community. On the other hand, the tribal organization is slightly more complex and is comprised of sub-units such as individual bands, lineages, clans, age-sets, secret societies, or clubs. These tribes are generally involved in agricultural activities. Their political structures are organized around lineages and clans and further classified into those based on age-sets, secret societies, military, and dancing clubs. Each tribe is made up of small autonomous units (lineages, clans, secret societies, or clubs) that form alliances, which tend to be informal and temporary.
• In addition to decentralized, multi-centered, stateless, and headless political organizations, there are also centralized, single-centered, or non-headless political systems based on states and chiefdoms.

Uncentarlised Political Organizations 

Band Organization

• Band organization is a simple form of social and political structure that is commonly found among hunter-gatherers and nomadic tribes. In this organization, kinship relations and political structure are integrated. Bands are small, self-governing groups that usually consist of people related by blood or marriage, and they occupy a shared territory with a low population density. Decision-making in a band is done through consensus by all adult members, without any formal political organization or rank specialization of labor.
• Leaders in a band organization are typically elders who possess expertise in various important areas and are known for their good judgment, skills, and luck. Public opinion is the primary mechanism for regulating and judging wrongdoers. The Eskimo political system is an example of band organization, showcasing the minimal specialized roles present in such simple structures.
• Eskimos live in small bands of around a hundred members, most of whom are related by blood or marriage. Their political structure consists of only two significant roles: the shaman and the headman. The shaman is mainly a religious leader, responsible for punishing those who violate religious taboos and even ordering exile, which is almost equivalent to a death sentence for an Eskimo. The headman makes decisions related to hunting, settlement, and work, but does not have authority over social order matters.
• When social disputes arise in a band organization, the headman may have some influence, but there is no formal authority to enforce action or behavior. Conflicts are typically resolved through fistfights, song duels, or other contests that the rest of the band observes and enforces the rules. For instance, if two men are fighting over a woman, they might engage in a duel to settle the claim. In extreme cases, family feuds may occur, and those who repeatedly commit crimes such as violence, murder, or theft may be handed over to an executioner who acts on behalf of the entire band upon their request. 

Tribal Political Organization 

Clan based Political Organization

• Clan-based political organization is a type of tribal structure found in various societies, where each clan serves as a center of political authority. In some of these societies, clan elders form a council responsible for resolving disputes within the tribe and representing the tribe in interactions with external parties.
• A specific example of this type of organization can be found in the Winnebago Red Indians of Wisconsin, who have twelve clans, each with distinct political roles. The tribal chief comes from the Thunder Bird clan, which is responsible for maintaining peace within the tribe. The Warrior clan provides leadership during times of war, while the Bear clan is in charge of village and hunting policing. The Buffalo clan supports the chief by serving as camp carriers and aides-de-camp.
• Other clans, such as the Wolf, Water-Spirit, and Elk clans, have less prominent political roles within the tribe. Overall, this clan-based political organization allows for a structured distribution of responsibilities and authority within the tribal society.

Lineage based Political Organization

• A lineage-based political organization is a form of tribal organization that is similar to clan-based political organization but less extensive and relatively rare. The horticultural Tiv of Nigeria and the pastoral Nuer of Sudan are examples of societies with lineage-based political organization. In such societies, lineages are divided into smaller segments, known as segmentary lineages. The Nuer, for instance, have multiple lineages, with each maximal lineage being further divided into minimal lineages. Minimal lineages consist of three to five generations and function as the basic permanent descent group in day-to-day activities. Members of a minimal lineage live in the same village and consider each other as close relatives. Politically, minimal lineages are independent, and there is no central leadership above this level.
• Feuds are common among the Nuer, involving hostility between minimal segments. Blood feuds refer to hostile interactions between kin on both sides in cases of homicide. If a homicide occurs between primary lineages, it could result in a state of internal war rather than a feud. The Nuer are prone to fighting, with disputes often arising over issues such as livestock, adultery, and access to water and pasture rights.
• In a strict sense, the Nuer do not have a legal system. Instead, they have conventional compensations for various offenses, such as damage, adultery, loss of limb, and death. Judicial and executive functions are not invested in any individuals or councils among the Nuer. They settle disputes through moral obligation and conventional methods, rather than legal procedures or institutions. The Nuer recognize right from wrong and generally admit the cause of a dispute.
• Feuds are often settled by a Leopard Skin Chief, who acts as a mediator. Although their role is political, they do not have any political authority and are considered more as sacred figures. The Leopard Skin Chief's duty is not to judge the merits or demerits of a homicide but to mediate between the parties involved. They are respected figures with no coercive power, exemplifying legitimacy without force.

Age-grade based Political Organization

• Age-grade based politics is often found in tribal societies across Africa, the United States, and Oceania. In this system, people are organized into groups based on their age, with members of the same age belonging to one age-grade. These age-grades transcend kinship and territorial boundaries, as individuals of the same age from different villages can belong to the same age-grade. Each tribe may be divided into two or more age-grades, with each grade associated with specific political roles.
• One example of age-grade based political organization can be seen in the Kinship of East Africa. In this society, males are separated into two age-grades: Warriors and Senior Elders. Warriors are responsible for defending the territory and contributing to the tribe's prosperity by increasing the population and acquiring livestock from other tribes. As they reach the end of their time as warriors, they transition into the Senior Elders age-grade.
• Senior Elders have various political duties, including participating in defensive battles, organizing the army, presiding over the council of elders to resolve disputes, and overseeing initiation ceremonies. In this way, age-grades in these societies serve distinct political functions and create connections that extend beyond kinship and geographical lines.

Association-based Political Organization in Tribal Societies

• In some tribal societies, political organizations can be formed around common interest associations such as secret societies, tribal fraternities, and military clubs. One example of this type of political organization is the Cheyenne warrior club. The Cheyenne people lived in bands of varying sizes, and each band had its own warrior club. These clubs were responsible for integrating the whole tribe for military and political purposes.
• The Cheyenne were particularly successful in resolving conflicts within the tribe and controlling individual behavior when necessary for the common good. Their formal mechanisms of political control were most evident during the summer season, when the bands would come together for communal buffalo hunts and tribal ceremonies. Order and discipline were crucial during these events to prevent disputes and to ensure the success of the hunt.
• Members of the warrior clubs acted as police during these gatherings, punishing offenders and trying to rehabilitate them back into the tribe. The goal was not revenge, but rather to encourage individuals to conform to tribal law for the welfare of the entire tribe. Punishments could include destroying personal belongings, marking horses with a sign of shame, or even whipping or killing those who resisted. However, if the person accepted their punishment and appeared to have learned a lesson, they would be welcomed back into the group and their belongings might be replaced.
• It is important to note that the warrior clubs only operated during the communal hunt period. At other times, more informal sanctions and leadership were in place at the band level.

Melanesian Big Man-based Political Organization

• In Melanesia, the "big man" leader is a self-interested individual who gains power through personal achievements rather than holding a formal office. Their authority is personal and not supported by an organization or election. Their status is derived from actions that elevate them above others in their tribe, attracting loyal followers.
• One example of a big man leader can be found among the Kapauku people of West New Guinea. The big man, known as a "tonowi" or rich man, is a self-made leader who starts as the head of a small kin group. Through public actions such as generous loans, the big man gains followers within the community. They skillfully accumulate wealth and increase the number of their wives, which in turn helps expand their pig herds, as women are responsible for taking care of pigs. The big man then distributes his wealth in ways that enhance his reputation, such as sponsoring feasts, subsidizing military allies, buying high ranks in secret societies, and paying bride wealth for young men seeking wives. By giving generously, the big man places many people under obligation to him, thus commanding obedience from his followers through a personal relationship of gratitude and obligation.
• However, this form of political organization is fragile, as it relies on the personality and constant efforts of an individual. Big men can rise and fall, and their factions may dissolve upon their deaths or be undermined by other ambitious individuals. To maintain prestige, the big man must constantly out-give his competitors, which may lead to withholding gifts from his own followers, causing discontent and possibly even his own downfall. The status of a big man is not inheritable, and each individual must start anew to amass wealth and establish the necessary social relationships to become a big man.

Conclusion

Anthropologists have identified various types of political organizations in tribal societies, which can be broadly categorized as centralized and uncentralized. Uncentralized political organizations include band organization, clan-based political organization, lineage-based political organization, age-grade based political organization, association-based political organization in tribal societies, and Melanesian big man-based political organization. These diverse political systems reflect the complex social structures and cultural practices of different tribal societies. Understanding these political organizations allows researchers and scholars to better appreciate the intricacies and dynamics of tribal societies and their political systems.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) for Types of Political Organizations

What are the two main types of political organizations among tribal societies?

The two main types of political organizations among tribal societies are centralized and uncentralized. Centralized political organizations have a single authority governing the entire society, while uncentralized organizations lack such centralized control.

What is a band organization?

A band organization is a simple form of social and political structure that is commonly found among hunter-gatherers and nomadic tribes. In this organization, kinship relations and political structure are integrated. Bands are small, self-governing groups that usually consist of people related by blood or marriage and occupy a shared territory with a low population density.

How does a lineage-based political organization function?

In a lineage-based political organization, lineages are divided into smaller segments, known as segmentary lineages. The political structure is organized around these lineages, with each minimal lineage functioning as the basic permanent descent group in day-to-day activities. Members of a minimal lineage live in the same village and consider each other as close relatives. Politically, minimal lineages are independent, and there is no central leadership above this level.

What is the role of a "big man" in Melanesian political organization?

In Melanesian political organization, a "big man" is a self-interested individual who gains power through personal achievements rather than holding a formal office. Their authority is personal and not supported by an organization or election. They gain followers through actions that elevate them above others in their tribe, such as generous loans or sponsoring feasts. The big man commands obedience from his followers through a personal relationship of gratitude and obligation. This form of political organization is fragile, as it relies on the personality and constant efforts of an individual.