British Expansion in India-IV - UPSC PDF Download

British vs Marathas

The Anglo-Maratha Wars were three territorial wars fought in India between the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company. Between the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, the British and the Marathas fought three Anglo-Maratha wars (or Maratha Wars). 

Rise of Marathas

• As the Mughal Empire fell, one of the empire's most tenacious foes, the Marathas, had an opportunity to climb to dominance.
• They ruled over a huge chunk of the land and received tributes from territories not immediately under their authority.
• By the middle of the 18th century, they were in Lahore contemplating becoming rulers of the North Indian empire and acting as kingmakers at the court of the Mughals.
• Though the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), in which they were beaten by Ahmad Shah Abdali, changed the situation, they reorganized, restored their strength, and established a position of dominance in India within a decade.
• Bajirao I (1720–40), regarded as the greatest of all Peshwas, established a confederacy of notable Maratha chiefs to govern the rapidly rising Maratha authority and, to some degree, pacify the Kshatriya element of the Marathas (Peshwas were brahmins) led by Senapati Dabodi.
• According to the Maratha confederacy's organization, each notable family under a chief was allotted a zone of influence that he was meant to conquer and control in the name of the then Maratha king, Shahu.
• The confederacy operated well under Bajirao I through Madhavrao I, but the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) changed everything.
• The defeat at Panipat, followed by the death of the young Peshwa, Madhavrao I, in 1772, reduced the Peshwas' hold over the confederacy.
• Though the leaders of the confederacy banded together on occasion, such as against the British (1775–82), they frequently quarreled among themselves.

Peshwa Bajirao I (1720–40)

• The 7th Peshwa, Shrimant Peshwa Baji Rao I, popularly known as Bajirao Ballal, enlarged the Maratha Empire to cover much of modern-day India.
• Balaji Vishwanath and his wife Radhabhai Barve gave birth to Baji Rao on August 18, 1700.
• Instead of Deccan, Baji Rao I directed the Maratha's attention to the north.
• He is credited as being the first Indian to detect the Mughals' fragility and fading empire. He was well aware of the Mughal rulers' weaknesses in Delhi.
• The well-known phrase "Attock to Cuttack" alludes to the Maratha Kingdom as visualized by Baji Rao-I, who wished to plant the Saffron Flag atop the walls of Attock.
• Baji Rao-I fought 41 wars and never lost a single one of them.
• This capable Maratha Prime Minister was able to form a confederacy of Marathas who had dispersed following Shivaji's death.
• The confederacy includes the Scindias which were led by Ranoji Shinde of Gwalior, the Holkars by Malharrao of Indore, the Gaekwads by Pilaji of Baroda, and the Pawars by Udaiji of Dhar.
• After Maharaja Chhattrasal's death, he was able to get one-third of Bundelkhand.
• He had a half-Muslim girlfriend from Bundelkhand named Mastani, who was never welcomed into Maratha culture.
• Baji Rao, I relocated the Marathas' administrative headquarters from Satara to Pune.
• Baji Rao-I died of an illness in 1740 and was succeeded by his son Balaji Baji Rao.

British vs Marathas

• Between the last quarter of the 18th century and the first quarter of the 19th century, the Marathas and the English clashed three times for political supremacy, with the English ultimately triumphing.
• The cause of these clashes was the English's excessive desire, as well as the split house of the Marathas, which encouraged the English to expect success in their attempt.
• The English in Bombay intended to build a government along the lines of Clive's organization in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• When the Marathas were split over succession, it was a long-awaited chance for the English.

Reasons for the Battles

• The three battles fought in India between the British East India Company and the Maratha confederacy or the Maratha Empire, are known as the Great Maratha Wars or the Anglo-Maratha Wars.
• The wars began in 1777 and ended in 1818 with the British triumph and the annihilation of the Maratha Empire in India.
• When the Marathas were defeated at the battle of Panipat, the third Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao, died on June 23, 1761.
• His son Madhav Rao succeeded him after his death.
• He was a capable and competent commander who maintained unity among his nobles and chiefs and was quickly successful in restoring the Marathas' lost authority and dignity.
• The British became increasingly wary of the Marathas as their power grew, and they sought to undermine their re-establishment.
• When Madhav Rao died in 1772, the British were free to attack the Marathas.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)

• The main cause of the first Maratha war was the British's growing meddling in the Marathas' internal and foreign affairs, as well as the power struggle between Madhav Rao and Raghunath Rao.
• After Peshwa Madhav Rao died, his younger brother, Narain Rao, took over as Peshwa, but it was his uncle, Raghunath Rao, who wished to be Peshwa.
• So he enlisted the assistance of the English to assassinate him and make him Peshwa in exchange for Salsette and Bessien, as well as earnings from Surat and Bharuch regions.
• The British promised Raghunath Rao assistance and furnished him with 2,500 men.
• The English and Raghunath Rao's united army invaded and defeated the Peshwa.
• The Pact of Surat was signed on March 6, 1775, but it was not authorised by the British Calcutta Council, and the treaty was cancelled at Pune by Colonel Upton, who abandoned Raghunath's sovereignty and guaranteed him merely a pension.
• The Bombay government denied this, and Raghunath was granted asylum.
• In violation of the pact with the Calcutta Council, Nana Phadnis granted the French a port on the west coast in 1777.
• As a consequence, the British and Maratha troops clashed on the outskirts of Pune at Wadgaon.

Result of First Anglo-Maratha War

• Salsette and Bessien were held by the East India Company.
• It also got a promise from the Marathas that they would regain their Deccan lands from Hyder Ali of Mysore.
• The Marathas also vowed that they would not cede the French any further provinces.
• Raghunathrao was to get an Rs.3 lakh pension each year.
• After the Treaty of Purandar, the British relinquished all lands captured by them to the Marathas.
• The English recognised Madhavrao II (Narayanrao's son) as the Peshwa.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)

• The Second Anglo-Maratha War was fought in Central India in 1803 and 1805 between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire.
• The defeat of Peshwa Baji Rao II by the Holkars, one of the key Maratha clans, was the main cause of the second Maratha war.
• As a result Peshwa Baji Rao II requested British protection by signing the Treaty of Bassein in December 1802.
• Other Maratha kings, such as the Scindia rulers of Gwalior and the Bhonsle rulers of Nagpur and Berar, would not accept this and sought to battle the British.
• As a result, the second Anglo-Maratha war in Central India erupted in 1803.

Result of Second Anglo-Maratha War

• The British defeated all of the Maratha army in these conflicts.
• In 1803 the Scindias signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon, which granted the British the lands of Rohtak, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Gurgaon, Delhi Agra area, Broach, various districts in Gujarat, sections of Bundelkhand, and the Ahmednagar fort.
• In 1803 the Bhonsles signed the Treaty of Deogaon, by which the English obtained Cuttack, Balasore, and the region west of the Wardha River.
• The Holkars signed the Treaty of Rajghat in 1805, giving away Tonk, Bundi, and Rampura to the British.
• As a result of the conflict, the British gained control over significant swaths of central India.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19)

• The two primary causes of the third and last struggle between the British and the Marathas were the Marathas' rising desire to reclaim their lost territory and the British's overbearing control over Maratha nobles and chiefs.
• Another reason for the conflict was the British fight with the Pindaris, whom the British believed was being protected by the Marathas.
• The fight took place in Maharashtra and surrounding territories during 1817 and 1818.
• When the Peshwa invaded the British Residency in November 1817, the Maratha leaders were defeated in areas including Ashti, Nagpur, and Mahidpur.
• The Treaty of Gwalior was signed on November 5, 1817, and Sindia was reduced to the status of a bystander in the conflict.
• The Treaty of Mandsaur was signed on January 6, 1818, between Malhar Rao Holkar and the British, which resulted in the dethronement of the Peshwa and the pensioning of the Peshwa.
• More of his holdings were taken by the British, and the British consolidated their dominance in India.

Result of Third Anglo-Maratha War

• Sindia and the British signed the Treaty of Gwalior in 1817, despite the fact that he had not been part of the war.
• Sindia surrendered Rajasthan to the British under the terms of this treaty.
• After accepting British control, the Rajas of Rajputana maintained the Princely States until 1947.
• In 1818, the British and the Holkar rulers signed the Treaty of Mandsaur. Under British tutelage, an infant was placed on the throne.
• In 1818, the Peshwa surrendered.
• He was deposed and retired to a modest estate in Bithur (near Kanpur). The majority of his area was absorbed into the Bombay Presidency.
• Nana Saheb, his adopted son, was a leader of the Kanpur Revolt of 1857.
• The lands seized from the Pindaris became British India's Central Provinces.
• The Maratha Empire was destroyed as a result of this conflict. The British captured all of the Maratha kingdoms.
• At Satara, an unknown descendant of Chhatrapati Shivaji was installed as the ceremonial ruler of the Maratha Confederacy.

Reasons for Marathas Lost

• This was one of the last great wars that the British fought and won.
• With this, the British gained direct or indirect control of most of India, with the exception of Punjab and Sindh.

Incompetent Leadership

• The Maratha state had a dictatorial aspect to it. The personality and character of the state's leader had a significant impact on the state's affairs.
• Bajirao II, Daulatrao Scindia, and Jaswantrao Holkar, however, were later Maratha leaders who were worthless and egotistical.
• They couldn't stand a chance against English officials like Elphinstone, John Malcolm, and Arthur Wellesley (who eventually led the English to victory against Napoleon).

Defective Nature of Maratha State

• The Maratha state's people's cohesiveness was not organic, but manufactured and accidental, and so insecure.
• From the time of Shivaji, there was no attempt to organise a well-thought-out community betterment, dissemination of knowledge, or unification of the people.
• The religio-national movement fueled the emergence of the Maratha state.
• When the Maratha state was pitted against a European force organised on the finest Western model, this flaw became apparent.

Loose Political Structure

• The Maratha empire was a loose confederation led by the Chhatrapati and subsequently by the Peshwa.
• Powerful chiefs like the Gaikwad, Holkar, Scindia, and Bhonsle carved established semi-independent kingdoms for themselves while paying lip respect to the Peshwa's authority.
• Furthermore, there was implacable antagonism among the confederacy's various components.
• The Maratha chief frequently supported one side or the other.
• The lack of cooperation among Maratha leaders was damaging to the Maratha kingdom.

Inferior Military System

• Despite their strength and gallantry, the Marathas lagged behind the English in terms of troop organisation, war weaponry, disciplined action, and efficient leadership.
• The centrifugal tendencies of divided leadership were responsible for many of the Maratha setbacks.
• Treason among the ranks had a role in weakening the Maratha army.
• The Marathas' use of contemporary military methods proved insufficient.
• The Marathas overlooked the critical necessity of artillery. The Poona administration established an artillery department, but it was ineffective.

Unstable Economic Policy

• The Maratha leadership was unable to develop a solid economic policy to meet the shifting demands of the period.
• There were no industries or opportunities for overseas trade.
• As a result, the Maratha economy was not favourable to a stable political setup.

English Diplomacy and Espionage

• The English were superior at winning friends and isolating the adversary through diplomacy.
• The English's work was made easier by the Maratha leaders' dissension.
• Due to their diplomatic dominance, the English were able to launch an immediate onslaught against the objective.
• In contrast to the Marathas' ignorance and lack of information about their adversary, the English maintained a well-oiled espionage network to obtain information about their adversaries' potentialities, strengths, weaknesses, and military tactics.

Progressive English Outlook

• The powers of the Renaissance resurrected the English, freeing them from the clutches of the Church.
• They devoted their efforts to scientific discoveries, long ocean journeys, and colonial conquest.
• Indians, on the other hand, were still mired in medievalism, which was characterised by archaic dogmas and beliefs.
• The Maratha leaders were unconcerned about the day-to-day running of the state.
• The insistence on maintaining existing social stratification based on the influence of the priestly elite made imperial merger impossible.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

The first of three Anglo-Maratha Wars fought in India between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire was the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782). The conflict began with the Surat Treaty and concluded with the Salbai Treaty. The conflict between Surat and Pune Kingdom resulted in British defeat and the restoration of both parties' pre-war positions. Warren Hastings, the East India Company's first President and Governor-General in India, opted not to assault immediately.  

First Anglo-Maratha War(1775-82) - Background

• Madhavrao's brother Narayanrao replaced him as the sixth peshwa after his death in 1772.
• Raghunathrao, Narayanrao's uncle, had his nephew slain and declared himself the next peshwa, despite the fact that he was not a legal successor.
• Gangabai, Narayanrao's widow, gave birth to a boy after her husband died. The newborn baby was called 'Sawai' (One and a Quarter) Madhavrao, and he was the peshwa's legal successor.
• Twelve Maratha chiefs (Barabhai), commanded by Nana Phadnavis, attempted to identify the newborn as the next peshwa and rule as regents for him.
• Unwilling to give up his position of power, Raghunathrao sought assistance from the English in Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775.
• Raghunathrao gave the English the territories of Salsette and Bassein, as well as a share of the earnings from Surat and Bharuch districts, as part of the deal.
• The English were to supply Raghunathrao with 2,500 men in exchange.
• On the opposite side of India, the British Calcutta Council denounced the treaty of Surat (1775) and dispatched Colonel Upton to Pune to cancel it and replace it with a new treaty (Treaty of Purandar, 1776) in which the regency renounced Raghunath and promised him a pension.
• The Bombay government refused, and Raghunath was granted asylum.
• Nana Phadnavis broke his covenant with the Calcutta Council in 1777 by allowing the French a port on the west coast. The English replied by dispatching a force to Pune.

Course of the War

• On the outskirts of Pune, the English and Maratha soldiers clashed.
• Though the Maratha army had more warriors than the English, the English possessed more superior ammunition and artillery.
• The Maratha army, on the other hand, was led by a talented general named Mahadji Scindia (also known as Mahadji Shinde).
• Mahadji enticed the English force into the ghats (mountain passes) at Talegaon, trapping them on all sides and attacking the English supply camp at Khopoli.
• The Marathas also practised a scorched earth strategy, destroying crops and polluting wells.
• As the English began to retire to Talegaon, the Marathas assaulted, forcing them to flee to Wadgaon.
• The English force was besieged on all sides by Marathas and was cut off from food and water.
• By mid-January 1779, the English had surrendered and signed the Treaty of Wadgaon, which required the Bombay administration to return all lands obtained by the English since 1775.

Result of First Anglo-Maratha War

• The Treaty of Salbai (1782) marked the end of the First Phase of the Conflict.
• Warren Hastings, Governor General of Bengal, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and dispatched a huge army of soldiers led by Colonel Goddard to seize Ahmedabad in February 1779 and Bassein in December 1780.
• In August 1780, another Bengal detachment commanded by Captain Popham conquered Gwalior.
• The English, led by General Camac, ultimately destroyed Sindhia at Sipri in February 1781.
• Sindhia suggested a new contract between the Peshwa and the English, and the Treaty of Salbai was signed in May 1782.
• Hastings confirmed the treaty in June 1782, and Phadnavis ratified it in February 1783. The treaty established a twenty-year period of peace between the two parties.

Treaty of Salbai

• Following the British loss, Warren Hastings offered a new contract between the Peshwa and the British, recognising the young Madhavrao as Peshwa and granting Raghunathrao a pension.
• The Treaty of Salbai was signed on May 17, 1782, and was confirmed by Hastings in June 1782 and Phadnis in February 1783.
• The primary stipulations of the Treaty of Salbai were as follows -
• Salsette shall remain in English hands.
• The Marathas should reclaim all of the land won since the Treaty of Purandar (1776), including Bassein.
• In Gujarat, Fateh Singh Gaekwad should keep the land he held before the conflict and continue to serve the Peshwa as before.
• Raghunathrao should not get any additional assistance from the English, and the Peshwa should provide him with a maintenance stipend.
• Haidar Ali should restore all land stolen from the English and the Nawab of Arcot.
• The English should have the same trading privileges as previously.
• The Peshwa should not back any other European country.
• The Peshwa and the English should commit to keeping their various friends at peace with one another.
• Mahadji Scindia shall be the mutual guarantee for the treaty's good observance.

Warren Hastings

• Warren Hastings (1732–1818), the first Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal) in 1772 and the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774 until his resignation in 1785, was the first Governor-General of Bengal.
• In 1750, he began his work as a writer (clerk) for the East India Company in Calcutta.
• Following Mir Jafar was enthroned as the Nawab after the Battle of Plassey, he became the British resident at Murshidabad, Bengal's capital, in 1758.
• The First Anglo-Maratha war and the Second Anglo-Mysore war were fought during his reign.
• During his presidency, the Regulating Act of 1773 was approved.
• In 1785, he backed Sir William Jones in forming the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
• Robert Clive had founded the Dual System, which Hastings repealed.
• The firm possessed Diwani rights (rights to collect money) under the Dual System, but the Nizam of Indian chiefs had administrative power.