Important Questions & Answers: Variations in Psychological Attributes - 1

Very Short Answer Questions

Q.1. Describe the One-factor Theory of Intelligence.

Ans: Alfred Binet conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities that can be used for solving any problem in an individual's environment. According to this view, intelligence is a single general ability that operates in all intellectual activities.

Q.2. Define intellectual disability.

Ans: The American Association on Mental Deficiency defines intellectual disability as "significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period."

Q.3. Explain contextual intelligence with the help of examples .

Ans:
(i) Contextual intelligence is one component of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. It refers to the ability to adapt to the current environment, select a more favourable environment, or modify an environment to meet one's needs.
(ii) It is often described as practical know-how or the capacity to handle everyday demands - sometimes called "street smartness" or business sense. People high on this facet tend to be successful in practical tasks.
(iii) For example, a child who joins a new school and adjusts to the peer group by sharing and cooperating shows contextual intelligence.
(iv) This aspect of intelligence emphasises practical adaptation rather than abstract problem solving.

Q.4. What is simultaneous and successive processing in intellectual functioning?
OR
Differentiate between simultaneous and successive processing giving example.

Ans: Information can be processed either simultaneously or successively.
Simultaneous processing: Relations among several concepts are integrated at once into a meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example, understanding the relationship among figures in Raven's Progressive Matrices requires simultaneous processing.
Successive processing: Information is organised in a serial order so that recall of one item leads to the next. Learning sequences such as digits, the alphabet or multiplication tables illustrates successive processing.

Q.5. Classify people on the basis of IQ.
OR
How are IQ scores distributed in a population?

Ans:

Q.6. Explain linguistic intelligence.

Ans: Linguistic intelligence is the capacity to use language effectively and to be sensitive to subtle differences in meaning. It includes fluency and flexibility with words. People high in this intelligence are "word-smart"; poets, writers and effective speakers typically show strong linguistic ability.

Q.7. Explain naturalistic intelligence.

Ans: Naturalistic intelligence is the awareness of, and sensitivity to, the natural world. It helps a person recognise and classify plants, animals and other natural phenomena, and to appreciate their qualities. Professions and activities such as farming, botany, zoology, bird watching and nature guiding often involve strong naturalistic intelligence.

Q.8. What is an interview?

Ans: An interview is a face-to-face interaction between two or more people intended to exchange information. Examples include a doctor interviewing a patient, a salesman speaking to a customer, or an employer selecting a candidate.

Q.9. What is CAS?

Ans: Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) is a battery of tests designed to measure basic cognitive functions for individuals aged 5 to 18 years. Results help identify cognitive strengths and weaknesses and can guide interventions for children with learning difficulties.

Q.10. What do you understand by individual differences?

Ans: Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people's characteristics and behaviour patterns. People differ in physical traits as well as psychological characteristics such as intelligence, personality, and interests.

Short Answer Questions

Q.11. Describe the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.

Ans: Sternberg views intelligence as the ability to adapt to, shape and select environments in order to achieve personal and cultural goals. He proposed three kinds of intelligence:
(i) Componential (Analytical) intelligence: Involves analysing information to solve problems and includes:
(a) Knowledge-acquisition component - responsible for learning and acquiring methods.
(b) Metacomponent - involves planning and deciding what to do and how to do it.
(c) Performance component - actually carrying out the task. For example, solving a mathematics problem involves gathering the formula, planning steps and performing calculations.
(ii) Experiential (Creative) intelligence: Concerns how experiences influence intelligence and how intelligence helps cope with novel situations.
(iii) Contextual (Practical) intelligence: Involves adapting to the environment, selecting a more favourable environment, or changing the environment to fit one's needs.

Q.12. Explain how the PASS model helps us to understand intelligence.

Ans: The PASS model (Das, Naglieri & Kirby, 1994) describes intellectual activity in terms of four functions:
(i) Arousal/Attention: An optimal level of arousal directs attention to relevant aspects of a task; too much or too little arousal impairs attention.
(ii) Simultaneous processing: Integrating relations among concepts into a meaningful whole (e.g., solving pattern-based problems).
(iii) Successive processing: Processing information in sequence so that each item cues the next (e.g., remembering a phone number).
(iv) Planning: Organising and monitoring actions after information has been attended to and processed, for example scheduling study time or choosing strategies to solve problems.

Q.13. Differentiate between Culture-fair and Culture-biased tests.

Ans: 

Culture-fair tests

• Designed to minimise the influence of culture.

• Usually non-verbal or performance-based tests.

Culture-biased tests

• Contain items favouring a particular culture.

• People from other cultures may be disadvantaged when taking such tests.

Q.14. Differentiate between 'technological intelligence' and 'integral intelligence.' Elaborate the concept of intelligence in Indian tradition.
OR
Explain the competencies of Indian notion of intelligence.
OR
Explain the role of culture on intelligence in Indian tradition.

Ans:
Technological intelligence:
(i) Valued in technologically advanced societies.
(ii) Emphasises generalisation, abstraction, processing speed, minimal moves and mental manipulation.
(iii) Focuses on attention, analysis, performance and achievement; typically linked to individualist goals.
Integral intelligence:
(i) Valued in many Asian and African societies.
(ii) Encourages both cognitive and non-cognitive skills (for example, social and emotional abilities).
(iii) Adopts a holistic outlook, stressing connectedness with the social and natural world.
(iv) Emphasises collectivist values and self-reflection.
Indian concept of intelligence:
(i) Indian tradition speaks of an integral intelligence, often referred to by the Sanskrit term Buddhi.
(ii) Competencies identified include:
(a) Cognitive capacity - sensitivity to problem solving and effective communication.
(b) Social competence - respect for elders, concern for the young and needy, and understanding others' perspectives.
(c) Emotional competence - self-regulation, honesty, politeness and good conduct.
(d) Entrepreneurial competence - commitment, persistence, patience, hard work and goal-directed behaviour.

Q.15. How is aptitude different from intelligence?

Ans: Aptitude refers to a person's potential to learn or perform specific tasks; it is task- or domain-specific and consists of a combination of abilities. Intelligence is a broader, global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with the environment at a given time (Wechsler's view).

Q.16. Mention any six indicators of giftedness.

Ans: Gifted children often show:

• Advanced logical thinking and problem-solving behaviour

• High speed in processing information

• Superior generalisation and discrimination ability

• Advanced original and creative thinking

• High intrinsic motivation and self-esteem

• Independent and non-conformist thinking

Q.17. How is creativity related to intelligence?
OR
Explain the relationship between creativity and intelligence.

Ans:
(i) A certain level of intelligence is necessary for creativity, but beyond that threshold higher IQ does not guarantee greater creativity. Creativity emphasises divergent thinking - producing many varied ideas, seeing new relationships and showing originality and imagination.
(ii) Tests of creativity are typically open-ended and allow for multiple, novel responses; intelligence tests are usually closed-ended and focus on convergent thinking, where a single correct solution or logical reasoning is required.

Long Answer Questions

Q.18. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?

Ans: Early researchers such as Alfred Binet defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well. Wechsler later described intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity to think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with the environment. Thus, intelligence is viewed both as problem-solving ability and as effective adaptation to the demands of the world.

Q.19. Discuss how interplay of nature and nurture influences intelligence. Distinguish between culture-fair and culture-biased tests.
OR
Explain how intelligence is the result of heredity and environment.

Ans:
Influence of heredity (nature): Research indicates a strong genetic contribution to intelligence. For example, studies of twins and adoptees show higher similarity in IQ for biologically related individuals.
Influence of environment (nurture): Environmental factors such as nutrition, family background, schooling and stimulation also affect intelligence. Deprivation tends to lower measured intelligence, while enriched environments raise it.
Empirical findings (examples of correlations):
Identical twins reared together: r ≈ 0.90.
Identical twins reared apart: r ≈ 0.72.
Fraternal twins reared together: r ≈ 0.60.
Brothers and sisters reared together: r ≈ 0.50.
Siblings reared apart: r ≈ 0.25.
Culture-fair vs culture-biased tests: Culture-fair tests aim to reduce cultural content (often non-verbal) and are more equally applicable across groups. Culture-biased tests include items or norms specific to the culture of test construction and therefore may disadvantage people from other cultural backgrounds (for example, tests normed on urban or Western samples may be biased when used with rural or non-Western groups).

Q.20. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores

Ans: Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is calculated as mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100:
IQ = (MA/CA) × 100.
Example: A 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 has IQ = (12/10) × 100 = 120.
Classification of people based on IQ:

Q.21. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss.

Ans:
Heredity (nature): Genetic factors substantially influence intelligence, as shown by twin and family studies where closer genetic relatedness corresponds to higher IQ correlations.
Environment (nurture): Environmental conditions such as prenatal care, nutrition, quality of schooling, family stimulation and socio-economic status also shape intellectual development; deprived environments tend to lower measured intelligence while enriched environments raise it.
Representative correlations:
Identical twins reared together: r ≈ 0.90.
Identical twins reared apart: r ≈ 0.72.
Fraternal twins reared together: r ≈ 0.60.
Brothers and sisters reared together: r ≈ 0.50.
Siblings reared apart: r ≈ 0.25.