Neolithic (Prehistoric) | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• Neolithic culture signifies a major shift in human society, marked by significant technological and economic changes. These changes were so profound that many scholars have referred to this period as the "Neolithic Revolution." Although the Neolithic age began around 7,000 B.C., in the Indian subcontinent, it did not emerge until around 4,000 B.C. The key technological development during this time was the grinding and polishing of stones, which allowed for more efficient tools. Economically, humans transitioned from being hunters and gatherers to food producers, thanks to the domestication of animals such as cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. The production of pottery also became commonplace.
• This shift in lifestyle meant that humans began to settle in specific locations, leading to a more organized community and social life. Instead of moving from place to place in search of food, people were able to cultivate land and establish a more permanent existence. This change in lifestyle had a profound impact on human society, as it allowed for the development of more complex social structures and a stronger sense of community.
• However, despite these overarching similarities, regional variations in Neolithic cultures emerged due to differences in local environmental conditions and cultural influences. As a result, it is difficult to provide a strict chronological or regional framework for these cultures. It is likely that different Neolithic cultures coexisted and overlapped, sharing certain cultural characteristics and influencing one another.

• The Neolithic cultures of India can be divided into regional zones, with significant excavated sites in each zone providing valuable knowledge about this period. In the northern zone, the Burzahom site, located about 20 km from Srinagar, Kashmir, is an important example of Neolithic culture. Discovered in 1935 by De Terra and Patterson, it was initially believed to be part of the Indus culture. However, it was later confirmed as a Neolithic site by Khazanchi of the Archaeological Survey of India, who conducted excavations between 1960 and 1971.

• Burzahom's inhabitants lived in pit dwellings on a plateau and likely had a fishing and hunting-based economy, with some evidence of early agriculture. The site's deposits can be divided into four periods: the first two being Neolithic, the third Megalithic, and the last early historic. The most distinctive feature of the first period is the pit dwelling, which came in various shapes such as round, oval, square, or rectangular. Circular pits were generally larger and deeper, and marks left by long celts can be seen on some pits.
• In the southern zone, important excavated sites include Sangankallu, Piklihal, Maski, Nagarujana-Konda, Untur, Narispur, and Tekkalkota. In the eastern zone, key sites are Daojali Hading, Chirand, and Barudith. Much of our understanding of Indian Neolithic culture comes from these excavated sites, particularly Burzahom, Sangankallu, Brahmagri-Piklihal, Daojali, Handing, and Chirand. 
• A large pit, approximately 4 meters deep, was discovered with a diameter of 2.7 meters at the opening and 4.6 meters at the base. The walls of the pit were coated with mud. The Neolithic people who inhabited this area used a diverse range of ground stone tools such as polished axes, harvesters, pounders, polishers, chisels, and mace beads. They also utilized numerous bone tools and weapons, including harpoons, needles, awls, spear points, arrowheads, daggers, and scrapers. Agrawal supports the idea that Burzahom's bone tool industry is unparalleled and the most advanced among all Neolithic cultures in India.
• The Neolithic inhabitants of Burzahom were skilled potters, crafting elegant pots despite not having access to a wheel. Paint (1972) demonstrated through radiography that the pots were created using a coiling technique. The pots were made on mats, as evidenced by various weaving patterns. Occasionally, the pots were decorated with incised and notched designs, and their colors ranged from steel-grey to brown. Additionally, paintings depicting hunting scenes have been found.
• Both human and animal burials were practiced by the Neolithic people of Burzahom. Carbon-14 dating methods suggest that this culture existed between 2400 and 1400 B.C.
• The earliest evidence of Neolithic culture in southern India can be found at Sanganakallu, an archaeological site excavated by Subbarao. Another site, Brahamagri, was excavated by Wheeler. The characteristic tool of this southern Neolithic culture is a pointed, polished axe with a butt. Other important tools include adzes, chisels, picks, borers, and pointed tools. Additionally, hammerstones, sling stones, querns, and bone tools were used. The pottery from this period is typically hand-made, with a dull grey color. However, at the Maski site, wheel-made pottery was more common, indicating a later development in the culture.
• Terracotta figurines of humped bulls have also been found, suggesting that these animals played a significant role in the economy of these Neolithic people. They were likely involved in cattle rearing and agriculture, as evidenced by the remains of domestic animals like buffalo, sheep, and goats. Although no grain remains have been found, the discovery of concave-shaped saddle querns and pounders indicates that some form of grain was crushed before consumption. This is further supported by the worn-out teeth found in two intact skeletons. These Neolithic people lived in huts or houses, with remains found at sites like Brahmagiri and Pikhlihal.
• The southern Neolithic culture in India, dating back to between 2500-1000 B.C., was characterized by their mastery of pottery making and ground stone tools, as well as their involvement in cattle rearing and agriculture.
• The Deojali-Hading excavation in North Cachar Hills of Assam, conducted by Sharma, is one of the few Neolithic sites in eastern India with collections primarily found on the surface. This excavation provided the first evidence of the stratigraphical occurrence of ground or polished stone axes and pottery in deep deposits. The ground and polished celts found in Assam are mostly shouldered at the butt end and have a sharp, ground border, making the Assam Neolithic distinct from the rest of India. Numerous pottery fragments were found in association with stone axes, and the pottery is handmade and decorated with cord or basket impressions. The Neolithic people in this area lived in mud-walled houses, but the excavation did not reveal any information regarding the habitation structures. Sankalia dates the Neolithic culture of Assam-Meghalaya to between 4000 and 2000 B.C.
• Chirand, located at the confluence of the Ganga and Ghaghra rivers in Bihar's Saran district, is the only Neolithic site found in the Gangetic plain, apart from Burzahom. Chirand has yielded a diverse range of bone tools, including celts, scrapers, chisels, hammers, needles, points, borers, awls, shaft straighteners, and arrowheads. Bone was also used to make ornaments such as pendants, earrings, bangles, discs, and combs. In addition to querns, balls, and pestles, ground stone axes were recovered from the site. Microliths made from chert, chalcedony, and siliceous stones were also found. The primary offensive weapons discovered were bows and arrows with stone and bone points and terracotta sting balls.
• The pottery found at Chirand is of exceptional quality, although the researchers believe it was made by hand or on a simple turntable. Initially, the inhabitants of Chirand seemed to have lived in pit dwellings with thatched roofs, but later transitioned to living in aboveground huts. It appears that these people had knowledge of grain cultivation, as charred paddy husk and wheat remains have been found at the site. Additionally, terracotta snake figurines have been discovered, providing the first evidence of a snake cult. The Neolithic culture of Chirand is estimated to have existed around 1600 B.C., but it is possible that it began even earlier.
• During the Neolithic Age, people continued to rely on hunting for some of their food, but they also began to produce much of it themselves. They used oxen as beasts of burden, and they raised cattle in herds for milk. Dogs were the first animals to be domesticated, serving not only as hunting aids but also as companions and protectors of families and cattle. Men hunted and protected their families, while women planted and tended to crops such as flax, barley, and wheat. This required families or groups to stay in one location for extended periods of time in order to care for and harvest their crops.

• Over time, Neolithic people developed new skills and technologies. They discovered that flax fibers could be spun into thread and woven into linen cloth. Women used bone needles to sew simple garments from the cloth. Men found that fire could be used to harden pottery and to create dugout boats by burning out the center of long logs. These dugouts were the first boats, allowing people to make greater use of rivers for transportation and further expanding their control over nature to meet their needs. 
• People during the Neolithic Age faced a significant limitation due to their reliance on stone tools and weapons. This restricted them to establishing settlements primarily in hilly river valleys, as they could not venture far from these areas. Moreover, even with considerable effort, they could only produce enough for basic subsistence.
• However, the shift to a settled lifestyle and agriculture provided some leisure time for the first time in human history. This allowed for the division of labor and specialization among community members. Settled communities required rules to govern behavior, but it is unclear how these regulations were established.
• It seems that community decisions were made collectively, either by the entire community or a council of elders, similar to current tribal societies. There were no kings or organized governments, only chiefs and chieftains. Archaeological evidence does not suggest any higher status for certain community members, indicating that social inequalities had not yet emerged during the Neolithic Age. The means of production were owned communally, and private property was limited to personal items such as ornaments and utensils. This primitive economic system has been referred to as "Primitive Communism" by Morgan.
• It was during the later Neolithic period that the invention of the wheel occurred, leading to a technological revolution. This marked the beginning of rapid social progress and technological development. The creation of written language and other advancements paved the way for the emergence of civilization.

Conclusion

The Neolithic Age in India was a transformative period marked by significant technological and economic changes. The shift from a nomadic lifestyle to settled communities allowed for the development of agriculture, animal domestication, and more advanced tools and pottery. These advancements led to the formation of more complex social structures and a stronger sense of community. Regional variations in Neolithic cultures existed due to differences in local environmental conditions and cultural influences, as evidenced by excavated sites such as Burzahom, Sangankallu, Daojali Hading, and Chirand. The Neolithic Age laid the foundation for human civilization by paving the way for inventions such as the wheel and written language, ultimately leading to rapid social progress and technological development.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) for Neolithic (Prehistoric)

What were the key technological developments during the Neolithic Age in India?

The key technological developments during the Neolithic Age in India included the grinding and polishing of stones for more efficient tools, the domestication of animals like cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, and the production of pottery. These advancements allowed humans to transition from being hunters and gatherers to food producers and settle in specific locations.

What are some important excavated Neolithic sites in India?

Important Neolithic sites in India include Burzahom in the northern zone, Sangankallu, Piklihal, Maski, Nagarujana-Konda, Untur, Narispur, and Tekkalkota in the southern zone, and Daojali Hading, Chirand, and Barudith in the eastern zone. These sites have provided valuable knowledge about the Neolithic cultures of India.

How did the Neolithic people in India live and what were their primary occupations?

Neolithic people in India lived in pit dwellings or huts, depending on the region and period. They were involved in various activities such as hunting, fishing, cattle rearing, and agriculture. The domestication of animals and cultivation of crops allowed them to establish more permanent settlements and develop a more organized community and social life.

What were some notable social and economic changes during the Neolithic Age in India?

During the Neolithic Age, people began to settle in specific locations and transitioned from being hunters and gatherers to food producers. This shift in lifestyle allowed for the development of more complex social structures, a stronger sense of community, and the division of labor and specialization among community members. The means of production were owned communally, and private property was limited to personal items, leading to a primitive economic system referred to as "Primitive Communism."