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Chalcolithic Culture
- The Chalcolithic cultures in India traditionally include non-urban, non-Harappan cultures characterized by the use of copper and stone. The Harappan culture is generally supposed to be followed by chalcolithic cultures. The urban traditions of the earlier Harappan culture disappeared and the subsequent tradition is marked by rural economy. The word chalcolithic is farmed from Chekos, meaning copper, and lithos, meaning stone. Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals, the metal be used first was copper. For a long time stone tools continued to be in use along with copper tools. In this phase people mostly founded rural settlements on river banks not far removed from the hills. They used microliths and other stone tools supplemented by a little use of copper tools. They were the first to use painted pottery.
- The Chalcolithic communities founded the firs; fullflaged villages in India. They cultivated far more cereals than is known in the case of the Neolithic communities. Sharma (1977) points out the general weakness of Chalcolithic cultures on the basis of the burial of a large number of children. In spite of a food producing economy the lack rate of infant mortality was very high. It might be due to the lack of nutrition, absence of medical knowledge or outbreak of epidemics. At any rate the Chalcolithic social pattern did not promote longevity. This phase also exhibits the beginning of social inequalities. In the graves of Chandoli and Nevasa in western Maharashtra some children were buried along with copper bead necklaces around their necks; other children had grave goods consisting only of pots. Similar other features of inequality may be cited from a number of other sites. The inclusive time spread of this culture is from 1750 B.C. to 1000 B.C.
- Except for the alluvial plains and the thickly forested areas, traces of Chalcolithic cultures have been discovered almost all over India. The Chalcolithic cultures of India may be divided into six regional groups: (1) The Ahar-Banas chalcolithic culture, (2) Chalcolithic culture of Madhya Pradesh, (3) Northern Deccan Chalcolithic culture, (4) The Neolithic-Chal- colithic culture of the Deccan, (5) Chalcolithic Culture of Gangetic doab, and (6) Eastern Chalcolithic culture. The bulk of knowledge we have about Chalcolithic culture in India is based on the excavated sites of Ahar, Bagor and Gilund of the Banas culture; Kayatha, Maheshwar, Navadatoli, Nagda, A vara, Manoti, and Evan of Madhya Pradesh; Prakash, Bahai.. Chandoli, Jorwe, Nevasa, Inamgaon and Nasik of Northern Deccan; Piklihal, Brahamagiri and, Maski of the Deccan; Bahadurabad, Ambarkheri, Hastinapur and Atranjikhera in the Gangetic doab; Lothal, Rangpur, Somnath and Rajdi of Saurashtra, and Chirand and Pandin Rajan Dhibi of the east. Unlike Harappan culture which was marked by a striking uniformity despite its spread over a vast area, these cultures show a distinct regional identity probably determined by smaller ecological units. South eastern Rajasthan gives rise to the Banas culture, the Malwa region to the Kayatha culture and the mid - Gangetic valley to the Ochre Coloured Pottery (O.C.P.) culture. “The main differences among these cultures lie in their characteristic ceramics though economically they have a similar status. A limited amount of copper and an abundance of lithic blades mark most of these cultures (Agrawal, 1984).
- The ochre colour pottery is mostly known from the Gangetic doab. When t-al first discovered it from below the painted Greyware levels at Hastinapur he found that on rubbing off they left an ochreous colour on the fingers, hence the name. A variety of copper tools, mostly in catchas, were accidentally discovered from a number of sites in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh - hence the name Copper Hoards. Copper was the main metal used by all the protohistoric cultures in India and therefore it is no surprise that a variety of tools cropped up from sites as far away from each other as Shalozan in north west Pakistan, Bhagrapir in Orissa and Kallur in the south. The tool types were equally varied: rings, flat and shouldered celts, an- thropomorphs, swords, double edged axes, harpoons, socketed axes, etc. The eastern group of the copper implements comprises simple types like shouldered and flat and rings which are ubiquitous in most of the Chalcolithic cultures. Piggot saw in these Copper Hoards the remains of Harappan refugees on their eastward march.
- The Banas culture is named after the River on whose banks the Banasian sites were found. Though more than fifty sites of the culture are known in the valleys of the rivers Banas and Berach in south east Rajasthan, excavations were conducted only at Ahar, Gilund and Kayatha. The most characteristic of this culture is the black and red ware, painted in white on the exterior. Motifs are generally geometric : parallel or oblique lines, circles, and spirals. Jaivar (a millet) is known from the pottery matrix of period II of this culture. There are also impression of long grained rice. No other grains, charred or otherwise, have been found. Animal bones, however, are in plenty; turtle, fish, goat, sheep, deer, pig and cattle were eaten.
- Kayatha, situated on the bank of the Kalisindh, an affluent of the Chambal, gives the culture its name. The most distinctive feature of this culture is its pottery in three fabrics. The most predominant is a thick, sturdy Brown Slipped Ware painted in violet or deep red. The designs are gene rally linear. The Kayathans, it seems, were quite well off in copper as from one pot alone twenty-eight copper bangles were recovered. They also had a developed blade industry comprising lunates, pen knives, parallel sided blades, etc. made on chalcedony. No complete house plans were uncovered by the excavations. The pot holes indicate the use of circular and rectangular huts made perhaps of split bamboo screens. No burials have been reported.
- Malwa is the main seat of the Malwa and Kayatha cultures and even and the Banas culture extended here. The Malwa culture is marked by the Malwa ware, a buff or orange slipped pottery painted in black or dark brown, use of copper and stone tools, and small settlement of wattle and daub huts. Sites of Malwa culture have been reported both from Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The best known excavated sites are Eran, Nagda, and Navadatoli in Madhya Pradesh and Inamgaon in Maharashtra. Navdatoli is the site par excellence of Malwa culture. Being the richest site for paintings on pottery; the black and red ware has been used for more than six hundred motifs--both geometric and naturalistic. It has also revealed a lot of information about the food habits of the people. Charred grains of wheat, barely and rice, Lin seed, black gram and lintel, ber, amla and grass pea were also consumed. There Is also evidence that the people ate beef venison and pork (Agrawal, ibid).
- Jorwe culture predominates the whole, of Maharashtra excepting Konkan. The Jorwe people cultivating barley, wheat, lentil and nee. Artificial irrigation had also been discovered. Food was perhaps consumed in a semi liquid form as indicated by the absence of dishes. An earthen pan seems to have been used to bake chapatis (thin bread). Large saddle querns may have been used to make barley and wheat flour. It appears that five large pits were used to roast animals. The Jorwe ware is the hallmark of this culture. It has a red or orange matt surface painted with geometric designs in black. It has a fine fabric and is well baked. Both adults and children were buried with the head facing north; the adults in extended positions and the children in coarse hand made red/ gray ware urns. Female figurines, with or without head, both baked and unbaked have also been reported. Physical features are represented symbolically but reproductive organs have been shown in exaggerated form; indications are that these were used in their fertility cult. Settlement patterns also show important features in contrast to humble huts and pit silos of the craftsmen; the centre of the settlement was probably occupied by the elite.
- The eastern Chalcolithic cultures included the present state of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. Chirand, located on the confluence of the Ganga and Ghaghra in the district Saran of Bihar, is a very important excavated site of this culture. Handmade thick gray ware, a wheel thrown red ware and black and red ware comprise the ceramic industry; Storage jars, dishes on stand, spouted vases, bowls on stand, lota etc. are the main pottery forms. A variety of terracotta objects have also been found. Serpent figurines are quite common and here may be seen the origin of the naga puja (Serpent cult). It appears that pit dwellings with thatched roofs were used in the beginning but later on only overground huts were made.
- The cultures that we have gone through in the preceding pages made use of copper, and in the later phases its alloy bronze, for making tods and implements. They emerged in regions where dealing of forests on a large scale for the purpose of cultivation was not required and the soil could be easily exploited. The next major advance in the history of mankind was marked by the discovery and use of iron. It Is harder than copper and bronze, cheap and available in plenty.
The discovery of iron made it possible to make a variety of agricultural tools such as plowshares, sickles, shovels and spades on a large scale. Iran axes facilitated the clearing of forests on a large scale for acquiring more land for cultivation. The use of Iron played a very important role in the growth of many of the civilizations. Since the discovery of Iron man never looked back in his endeavor for more and more technological development.- Megaliths and Megalithic Age Megalithic monuments used as memorial stones for the dead are a worldwide feature. While megalithic culture in Europe is related with Neolithic, in India it is, by and large, a feature of the iron age especially in south India.
- R.E.M. Wheeler (1956) describes megaliths as those monuments which are built at rough, large, undressed blocks of stones, usually, though not invariably. of rudimentary character. Those monuments are connected with burials which fulfill funerary or commemorative or religious functions.” The earliest evidences of megalithic graves and funerary appendages in India came to light in 1872 but concerted archaeological efforts began only in 1944 and since then hundreds of megaliths have been found especially in south India. Such monuments of similar type have been found near Madras, Chin- gelput, Akhor and Chittor.
- Probably these megaliths in the earliest stages were used in the funeral proceedings but later on these were erected as memorial stones; A number of such graves have yielded, beside skeletal remains of the dead, a number of other items as funerary appendages. Mainly, four types of Megaliths have been found in India:
1. Cairn circle
2. Cist
3. Menhir
4. Dolmen
Iron Implements from South Indian Megalithic Graves. 1. Arrowhead 2. Daggers; 3. Sword; 4. Spearhead; 5. Trident; 6. Battle axe; 7. Hoes; 8. Plough Share; 9. Sickles; 10. Stirrup; 11, Laddies; 12. Tripod; 13. Lamp. - Cairn Circle type of megaliths consist of several round shaped stones. It seems that at first the dead body used to be buried along with iron implements, clay pots or urns and bones of pets and then rounded stones were fixed all around the grave. Such megaliths have been found from Nayakund and Borgaon (Maharashtra) and Chingleput (Tamil Nadu). Cist graves also follow a set pattern. The dead body was first buried and small stones erected all around it. Then larger stone slabs were made to rest on the pillars, providing the grave some sort of a shade. Such megalithic graves have been found from Banda and Mirzapur of Uttar Pradesh. Menhirs are like large and tall memorial stones erected to give some clue to the presence of a grave at that place. These stone pillars varied in length between one and a half to about five and a half meters. Menhir graves have mostly been found in Mask and Gulbarga regions of Karnataka.
- In the category of Dolmen graves the dead body used to be placed on a slab of stone on a raised platform covered from all sides with a flat stone slab resting on the four legs of stone erected at the four comers of the dead body. Since it gives a table like look it has been designated as dolmen which loosely means a stone table. Such graves have been found from Brahmagiri in Karnataka and Chingleput from Tamil Nadu. The above described four types of megalithic graves may be cited as representative patterns of megalithic cult in India. But some more types have also been found though scarcely. Among such lesser occurring graves come (i) umbrella stone, (ii) rock cut caves, and (ill) head and hood stone. Umbrella stone megaliths are those in which a round stone slab rests on pillars giving them the look of an umbrella. Such graves occur in Kerala specially in Ariyannur and Chermmanangal.
- In the second type called ‘rock cut caves the laterite deposits were cut to make a rectangular chamber in which the dead body was placed and covered. Such graves have been found from Kattkaumpal and Porkalam in Kerala. Head Stone graves exhibit a simple burial; in this category the dead body along with the funerary appendage was used to be buried first and only a circular stone slab was placed over it. Such graves have been discovered from Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
The iron implements which are common to all the megalithic graves are flat axes, sickles, tripods, tridents, spear heads, multiple lamp hangers, arrow heads and lamps. A number of ornaments used on the frontal region of a horse have also been found from a number of megalithic burials. - The authors of the southern megalithic culture seem to be the people from Arabia Who maintained gypsy like tented colonies where they might have bred horses to be traded with the newly rising political centres around the middle Ganga valley. Beside the southern megalithic culture, archaeologists have been working since the 1950s on Vidarbha megalithic culture spread over Dhule, Amravati, Paunar. Nagpur etc. and a north Indian megalithic culture/cultures spread over Leh and Jhelum valley (Jammu & Kashmir), Dehradun, Mirzapur, Varanasi. Allahabad and Banda all from Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
- Another important point to be kept in mind is that megalithic culture may not refer to as any prehistoric culture. Many tribal communities have been erecting similar memorial stones in the historic period. Megalithic monuments of Chotanagpur region are a case in point. But the fact remains that the practice of erecting megalithic monuments, has been quite wide spread and megalithic burials have been found from certain places of the world between which potential geographical barriers always discouraged diffusion of this cultural practice.
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