Chapter Notes: The Rajasthani Schools of Painting

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Themes of Paintings - An Overview
3. Malwa School of Painting
4. Mewar School of Painting
5. Bundi School of Painting
6. Kota School of Painting
7. Bikaner School of Painting
8. Kishangarh School of Painting
9. Jodhpur School of Painting
10. Jaipur School of Painting
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Introduction

The term 'Rajasthani Schools of Painting' refers to the various painting styles that existed in the princely kingdoms and thikanas of what is now Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh between the 16th and early 19th centuries.

• Scholar Ananda Coomaraswamy in 1916 introduced the term 'Rajput Paintings' to distinguish these schools from the Mughal School of Painting, as most rulers and patrons in these regions were Rajputs.
• The scope of Rajput Schools extended to Malwa in Central India and the Pahari Schools in the Himalayan region of north-western India.
• These schools represent the indigenous painting traditions that thrived before the Mughal conquest.

Diversity in Painting Styles

• Pictorial styles in these kingdoms varied significantly in terms of execution, color preferences, compositional elements, modes of narration, naturalistic depictions, and mannerisms.
• Styles ranged from fine to bold execution, brilliant to gentle colors, and diverse approaches to depicting architecture, figures, nature, and storytelling.

Materials and Techniques

• Paintings were created on waslis, thin sheets of handmade paper glued together for desired thickness.
• Outlines were drawn in black or brown, with colors applied using mineral pigments mixed with glue.
• Brushes were made from camel and squirrel hair.
• Finishing touches involved burnishing with an agate to achieve a uniform sheen.

Collaborative Process

• Painting was a collaborative effort, with the master artist sketching and providing initial drawings.
• Specialists in coloring, portraiture, architecture, landscape, and animals contributed their expertise.
• The scribe would write verses in designated spaces within the paintings.

Themes of Paintings - An Overview

• Vaishnavism Influence: By the sixteenth century, Vaishnavism - particularly in the cults of Rama and Krishna - became widely popular across western, northern, and central India. This was part of the larger Bhakti movement that spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.
• Krishna's Special Appeal: Krishna held a unique charm for devotees. He was not only worshipped as God but also revered as the ideal lover. His persona represented a harmonious blend of sensuousness and mysticism.
• Love as a Religious Theme: The emotion of love was deeply cherished as a sacred theme, symbolizing a beautiful combination of devotion and spiritual longing. Krishna was viewed as the creator from whom all creation emerged as a divine play, while Radha represented the human soul offering herself to God. The soul's deep devotion to the divine was symbolically portrayed through Radha's complete surrender to Krishna, as seen in Gita Govinda paintings.
• Gita Govinda by Jayadeva: Gita Govinda (The Song of the Cowherd) was composed in the twelfth century by Jayadeva, who is believed to have served as the court poet of Lakshmana Sen of Bengal. Written in Sanskrit, this lyrical poem evokes shringara rasa (the mood of love) and illustrates the mystical love between Radha and Krishna through vivid worldly imageries.
• Rasamanjari by Bhanu Datta: Another significant text for artists was Rasamanjari ("Bouquet of Delight"), composed by Bhanu Datta, a Maithil Brahmin from Bihar, in the fourteenth century. Written in Sanskrit, it is a detailed treatise on rasa (aesthetic sentiment). The text classifies heroes (nayakas) and heroines (nayikas) according to:
  • Age: Baal (adolescent), Taruna (youthful), and Praudha (mature).
  • Physiognomy: Padmini, Chitrini, Shankhini, Hastini, etc.
  • Emotional States: Khandita, Vasaksajja, Abhisarika, Utka, and others.
    Though Krishna is not directly mentioned in this text, painters later depicted him as the archetypal lover in related artworks.
• Rasikapriya by Keshav Das: Rasikapriya ("The Connoisseur's Delight") is another important poetic composition. Written in Brajbhasha by Keshav Das, the court poet of Raja Madhukar Shah of Orchha, in 1591, it is filled with rich poetic interpretations meant to evoke aesthetic pleasure among elite courtiers. The text explores complex emotional states shared by lovers - such as affection, togetherness, betrayal, jealousy, quarrels and their aftermath, separation, and reconciliation - portrayed through the characters of Radha and Krishna.
• Kavipriya by Keshav Das: Another poetic work by Keshav Das, Kavipriya, was composed in honour of Rai Parbin, a renowned courtesan of Orchha. The text narrates a story of love and includes its tenth chapter titled Baramasa (The Twelve Months). This section vividly describes the different months of the year, daily life during changing seasons, and festivals associated with each period. In it, the nayika (heroine) is shown persuading the nayaka (lover) not to leave her and go on a journey.
• Bihari Satsai by Bihari Lal: Bihari Satsai is a celebrated work written by poet Bihari Lal. It consists of 700 verses (satsai meaning "seven hundred"), composed in the style of aphorisms and witty moral reflections. It is believed that the poet wrote this collection around 1662 while serving at the court of Jaipur, under the patronage of Mirza Raja Jai Singh - whose name appears in several verses. The Satsai became especially popular in the Mewar region and, to a lesser extent, in the Pahari school of painting.
• Ragamala Paintings: These paintings represent visual interpretations of ragas (melodic modes) and raginis (their female counterparts). Each painting embodies a specific mood, emotion, season, or time of day. They were often organized in series or albums, portraying the relationships between ragas (male) and raginis (female).
• Other Favourite Themes: Artists also drew inspiration from bardic legends and romantic tales such as Dhola-Maru, Sohni-Mahiwal, Mrigavat, Chaurpanchashika, and Laurchanda, among others. Additionally, religious texts like the Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Mahabharata, and Devi Mahatmya were common subjects for paintings across all regional schools.
• Depictions of Daily and Royal Life:
  A large number of paintings from this era also document real-life scenes and events. These include:
  • Court (darbar) scenes and significant historical moments.
  • Hunting expeditions, wars, and victorious battles.
  • Picnics, garden gatherings, dance and music performances.
  • Religious rituals, festivals, and elaborate wedding processions.
  • Portraits of kings, courtiers, and their families.
  • City landscapes, as well as depictions of birds and animals.

Ragamala Paintings and Their Structure: Ragas were traditionally personified in divine or human forms within romantic or devotional settings by poets and musicians. Each raga is linked to a particular mood, season, and time of day. Ragamala paintings, which visually interpret these musical modes, were typically compiled into albums consisting of 36 or 42 folios. These were systematically organized into families, each headed by a male raga accompanied by six female counterparts known as raginis. The six principal ragas commonly depicted are Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha, and Shri.

Malwa School of Painting

• Flourished Period: The Malwa School thrived between 1600 and 1700 CE.

Malwa School of Painting

• Characteristics: Represents Hindu Rajput courts with a simplistic two-dimensional style.
• Influences: Progression from Jain manuscripts to Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings.
• Origins: Originated in Central India, with mentions of places like Mandu, Nusratgarh, and Narsyang Sahar.
• Notable Works: Includes an illustrated poetic text of Amaru Shataka (1652 CE) and a Ragamala painting by Madho Das (1680 CE).
• Patronage: Likely bought by Datia rulers from travelling artists, featuring themes like Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, and more.

Other Indian Art Schools

• Mughal School: Dominated from the 16th century in major centers like Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Lahore.
• Provincial Mughal Schools: Flourished under Mughal-appointed governors, blending Mughal and local elements.
• Deccani School: Thrived in Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, and Hyderabad from the 16th century.
• Rajasthani Schools: Prominent from the late 16th century, featuring diverse regional styles.
• Pahari School: Emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries as an offshoot of the Rajasthani tradition.

Mewar School of Painting

Mewar School of Painting

• Early Development: Mewar is believed to have been one of the earliest and most significant centres of painting in Rajasthan. It is considered the starting point of a continuous stylistic tradition that evolved from bold, indigenous pre-seventeenth-century styles into more refined and detailed forms after Karan Singh's contact with the Mughals.
• Loss of Early Works: Due to prolonged wars with the Mughals, most early Mewar paintings were destroyed, leaving very few surviving examples from the initial period.
• Earliest Known Work - Chawand Ragamala (1605): The formal emergence of the Mewar School is traced to a dated set of Ragamala paintings created at Chawand in 1605 by the artist Nisardin.
  • A colophon page from this series confirms the artist's name and date.
  • The set's style shows continuity with pre-seventeenth-century traditions - marked by a direct approach, simple composition, occasional decorative details, and vivid colours.
• Reign of Jagat Singh I (1628-1652): This period marks the maturity and reformulation of Mewar's pictorial aesthetics under master painters Sahibdin and Manohar. They infused the style with greater vitality, refinement, and narrative complexity.
• Major Works of Sahibdin:
  • Ragamala (1628)
  • Rasikapriya
  • Bhagvata Purana (1648)
  • Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana (1652) - part of the Jagat Singh Ramayana series.
• Major Works of Manohar: Bal Kanda of Ramayana (1649) - considered his most significant contribution.
• Jagannath's Contribution: The gifted artist Jagannath created an illustrated Bihari Satsai in 1719, a unique and notable work of the Mewar School.
• Other Textual Illustrations: Texts such as Harivamsha and Sursagar were also illustrated in the last quarter of the seventeenth century, showing the school's sustained engagement with devotional and literary themes.
• Sahibdin's Innovative Style - Yuddha Kanda (1652):
  • The Yuddha Kanda ("Book of Battles") by Sahibdin is among the finest works of the Jagat Singh Ramayana.
  • The artist introduced a novel pictorial device - the oblique aerial perspective - to enhance depth and realism in large-scale battle scenes.
  • Multiple narrative techniques were used:
    • Layering of several episodes within one composition.
    • Expanding a single episode across multiple folios.
  • The discussed folio portrays Indrajit's cunning tactics and his use of magical weapons in battle.
• Eighteenth-Century Transition:
  • During the 18th century, Mewar painting gradually shifted away from textual and mythological themes toward courtly life and royal leisure activities.
  • Artists increasingly depicted scenes of festivities, entertainment, and daily royal pursuits.
  • A bright colour palette, dominated by reds and yellows, became characteristic of this phase.
• Nathdwara School (Late 17th Century):
  • Nathdwara, near Udaipur, emerged as an important Vaishnava painting centre in the late seventeenth century.
  • Artists there produced large cloth backdrops called pichhwais for the deity Shrinathji, painted for various religious festivals and ceremonial occasions.
• Secular and Courtly Focus:
  • By the eighteenth century, Mewar painting became increasingly secular and courtly in character.
  • Popular subjects included:
    • Portraits of rulers and nobles.
    • Elaborate court scenes and royal gatherings.
    • Hunting expeditions, festivals, sports, and zenana (women's quarters) activities.
• Depiction of Maharana Jagat Singh II (1734-1752):
  • A well-known folio portrays Maharana Jagat Singh II touring the countryside while hawking.
  • The landscape is rendered with an oblique perspective and a raised horizon, creating a panoramic sense of space and limitless vision.
  • The scene stands out for its complex narrative and reportage-like quality, blending artistic imagination with a documentary approach.

Bundi School of Painting

• Origin: Flourished in Bundi in the 17th century.
• Characteristics: Noted for unblemished color sense and excellent formal design.

Bundi School of Painting

• Early Phases: Bundi Ragamala dated 1591, painted during the reign of Bhoj Singh (1585-1607).
• Patronage:
  • Blossomed under Rao Chattar Sal (1631-1659) and his son Rao Bhao Singh (1659-1682).
  • Development continued under Aniruddha Singh (1682-1702) and Budh Singh.
• Expansion:
  • Under Umed Singh (1749-1771), the art reached a refined phase.
  • Bundi paintings in the 18th century showed influence from Deccani aesthetics.
• Later Phases:
  • Bishen Singh (1771-1821) and Ram Singh (1821-1889) further enriched the art.
  • Distinct features included lush vegetation, wildlife depictions, and equestrian portraits.
• Artistic Details:
  • Distinct standards of feminine beauty in Bundi paintings.
  • Artists like Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim mentioned in works.
• Themes:
  • Raga Dipak depicted in a night setting with innovative lamp holders.
  • Baramasa, a popular theme, provides atmospheric descriptions of the 12 months.

Kota School of Painting

The Kota School of Painting emerged from the rich artistic tradition of Bundi, forming one of the most notable Rajasthani painting schools. This school particularly excels in portraying hunting scenes, reflecting a profound enthusiasm and focus on animal pursuits.

• Historical Background: Bundi and Kota were once part of the same realm until 1625 when Jahangir divided the Bundi empire. A portion was granted to Madhu Singh for his valor in defending against Prince Khurram's rebellion.
• Origins of Kota School: Following its separation from Bundi, the Kota School of Painting began around the 1660s during Jagat Singh's reign (1658-1683). Initially, Kota paintings closely resembled those of Bundi, with Kota artists borrowing heavily from Bundi's styles and compositions.
• Distinctive Features: Over time, Kota artists developed a unique style characterized by non-conformity, exaggerations in figures and architecture, and a strong emphasis on drawing skills. By the reign of Ram Singh I (1686-1708), Kota painting had evolved into a distinct and individualistic form.
• Evolution of Themes: Under Umed Singh (1770-1819), Kota painting expanded to encompass a wide array of subjects. The artists were among the first to prominently feature landscapes as the primary focus of their compositions.
• Focus on Wildlife and Hunting: Umed Singh's reign was marked by a deep interest in hunting and wildlife. The paintings from this period served as visual tributes to his hunting expeditions, reflecting a societal fascination with the chase that even involved court women.
• Artistic Characteristics: Kota paintings are known for their spontaneity, calligraphic execution, and a focus on detailed shading, particularly in the depiction of eyes. Artists from the Kota School excelled in portraying animals and combat scenes.

Bikaner School of Painting

• Foundation of Bikaner: Rao Bika Rathore founded the kingdom of Bikaner in 1488, which later became one of the prominent centres of art and culture in Rajasthan.
• Cultural Growth under Anup Singh (1669-1698):
  • Anup Singh established a royal library in Bikaner that became a rich repository of manuscripts and paintings.
  • His reign marked a flourishing period for the arts, attracting skilled painters and promoting the development of the Bikaner School.
• Mughal Influence: Due to Bikaner's close association with the Mughal court, its painting style reflected Mughal refinement, featuring elegance, delicate detailing, and a subdued colour palette.
• Arrival of Mughal Artists:
  • In the seventeenth century, several Mughal atelier artists visited and worked in Bikaner.
  • Karan Singh employed Ustad Ali Raza, a distinguished painter from Delhi, whose works around 1650 are considered the earliest examples of the Bikaner School.
• Ruknuddin - The Master Artist:
  • During Anup Singh's reign, Ruknuddin, descended from Mughal court artists, emerged as the leading painter.
  • His style combined indigenous traditions with Deccani and Mughal artistic conventions.
  • He illustrated major texts such as the Ramayana, Rasikapriya, and Durga Saptasati.
  • Other notable artists in his workshop included Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin, and Isa.
• Mandi System (Studios):
  • A key practice in Bikaner was the establishment of studios called Mandi, where groups of artists worked under a master's supervision.
  • Ruknuddin, Ibrahim, and Nathu managed several Mandis during Anup Singh's reign.
  • After completion, the court archivist inscribed the name of the master artist and the date on the back of each painting.
  • This sometimes led to the master's name appearing on students' works, as the master often added finishing touches - a process known as gudarayi ("to lift").
  • Studios also undertook marammat (repair work) and created nakals (copies) of older paintings.
• Portrait Tradition of Artists:
  • The custom of painting portraits of artists is a unique feature of the Bikaner School.
  • These portraits were often inscribed with details about the artist's lineage and referred to them as Ustas or Ustads (masters).
• Artistic Styles:
  • Ruknuddin's works are noted for their soft, refined colour tones.
  • Ibrahim's paintings display a misty, dreamlike atmosphere, featuring delicate figures with prominently modeled faces.
  • Ibrahim's workshop was particularly prolific, producing multiple illustrated sets of Baramasa, Ragamala, and Rasikapriya.
• Archival Documentation:
  • The Bikaner School is among the best-documented painting traditions in India.
  • Records from Bahis (royal diaries) and inscriptions on paintings provide details about artists, dates, places of production, and occasions for commissions.
  • Inscriptions were usually written in Marwari, and sometimes in Persian, offering valuable historical evidence.

Kishangarh School of Painting

• Overview: Kishangarh paintings are revered for their stylized nature within the realm of Rajasthani miniatures.
• Facial Characteristics: Noteworthy for arched eyebrows, lotus petal-shaped pink-tinted eyes, drooping eyelids, sharp slender noses, and thin lips.
• Historical Background:
  • Founding: Kishan Singh established the Kishangarh state in 1609.
  • Patronage: By the mid-17th century, under Man Singh (1658-1706), artists were already active in the Kishangarh court.
  • Evolution: The art style evolved to elongate human forms, utilize green tones, and showcase expansive landscapes by the early 18th century during Raj Singh's reign (1706-1748).
  • Influence of Pushtimargiya Cult: Raj Singh's affiliation with Vallabhacharya's cult led to a focus on Krishna Lila themes in Kishangarh's art.
• Notable Artist:
  • Nihal Chand: Renowned painter who worked for Sawant Singh from 1735 to 1757, depicting Radha and Krishna in courtly settings within vast, detailed landscapes.
• Artistic Style:
  • Color Palette: Kishangarh artists excelled in portraying landscapes with vivid colors and vast vistas.

Jodhpur School of Painting

• Overview: The influence of Mughal aesthetics in the sixteenth century impacted the style of portraiture and court scenes. Despite this, the indigenous folkish style remained prevalent and resistant.
• Ragamala Set by Virji (1623): One of the earliest sets of paintings in Pali.
• Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638-1678): Initiated a productive painting era, focusing on documentary painting through portraiture and court life depiction.
• Ajit Singh (1679-1724): Succeeded Jaswant Singh after a 25-year war with Aurangzeb, with legendary warrior Veer Durgadas Rathore playing a significant role.
• Man Singh (1803-1843): Oversaw an innovative phase in Jodhpur painting, including notable sets like Ramayana, Dhola-Maru, Panchatantra, and Shiva Purana.
• Depiction of Local Life: Artists incorporated local architectural, costume, and cultural elements into their paintings, providing insights into the daily life of Jodhpur.
• Nath Sampradaya Influence: Man Singh, a follower of the Nath Sampradaya, was depicted in paintings alongside Nath gurus.
• Inscriptions: Paintings lacked detailed inscriptions until the nineteenth century, with rare mentions of dates, artists, and locations.

Jaipur School of Painting

• Origin and Early Influence:
  • The Jaipur School of Painting originated in Amer, the former capital of Jaipur.
  • Amer's proximity to the Mughal capitals Agra and Delhi made it the most influenced among the large Rajput states by Mughal art and culture.
• Early Rajput-Mughal Relations:
  • Raja Bharmal (1548-1575) strengthened ties with the Mughals by marrying his daughter to Emperor Akbar.
  • His son Bhagwant Das (1575-1592) was a close friend of Akbar.
  • Man Singh, Bhagwant Das's son, served as Akbar's most trusted general, further deepening Mughal-Rajput cultural exchange.
• Foundation of Jaipur City:
  • Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1743) founded the new capital city, Jaipur, in 1727, shifting from Amer.
  • Under his reign, the Jaipur School of Painting flourished and developed into an independent and distinctive style.
• Patronage under Sawai Jai Singh:
  • Court records indicate that Mughal painters from Delhi were invited to join his atelier.
  • He also encouraged craftsmen and artists from various regions to settle in Jaipur.
  • The Suratkhana (royal workshop) was reorganised to manage the production and storage of paintings.
  • Sawai Jai Singh was a devotee of the Vaishnavite sect and commissioned many Radha-Krishna themed paintings.
  • Artists illustrated texts such as Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda, Baramasa, and Ragamala, often depicting the hero with facial features resembling the king himself.
  • Portrait painting also flourished; notable painters included Sahibram (a skilled portraitist) and Muhammad Shah.
• Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743-1750):
  • Continued royal patronage of art.
  • Commissioned paintings of religious themes, literary scenes, and royal leisure activities - such as elephant rides, boar and tiger hunts, and elephant combats.
• Sawai Madho Singh (1750-1767):
  • Focused on documenting court life, commissioning paintings that recorded royal events, processions, and ceremonies.
  • Sawai Pratap Singh (1779-1803) - Second Flourishing Period:
  • Under his reign, the Mughal influence began to recede, and a distinct Jaipur style emerged that blended Mughal finesse with local Rajasthani traditions.
  • This marked a revival phase of Jaipur painting in the late eighteenth century.
  • Around 50 artists were employed in his court.
  • Sawai Pratap Singh was a scholar, poet, and Krishna devotee, deeply engaged with artistic and literary pursuits.
  • Paintings from his reign depicted royal portraits, courtly grandeur, and religious-literary themes such as Gita Govinda, Ragamala, and Bhagavata Purana.
• Techniques and Features:
  • Tracing and pouncing methods were commonly used for making multiple copies.
  • By the early nineteenth century, Jaipur artists made lavish use of gold in their works.
  • The school preferred large-size formats, often producing life-size royal portraits that emphasized grandeur and opulence.