UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2018: Geography Paper 2 (Section- A) | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.1. (a) On the outline map of India provided to you, mark the location of all the following. Write in your QCA Booklet the significance of three locations whether physical/commercial/economic/ecological/environmental/cultural in not more than 30 words for each entry:  (2*10=20)

(i) Shyok river
(ii) Mawlynnong
(iii) Shravasti
(iv) Kori creek
(v) Amarkantak
(vi) Ghatshila
(vii) Tawang
(viii) Neyyar
(ix) Dandeli
(x) Mulshi Lake

Shyok river: Shyok river is the right bank tributary of the Indus river. It is also called the river of death. It is originated from Rimo Glacier near Siachen Glacier and flows in northern Ladakh. 

Mawlynnong:  It is a village of Meghalaya and it was Asia's cleanest village in 2018.

Shravasti:  Shravasti is a spiritual city and it is located in Uttar Pradesh. It was the capital city of the Kosala kingdom. It is also related to Buddhism and Jainism. 

Kori creek:  It is a tidal creek located in the western Kutchchh region of India. It is located east of Ser creek. 

Amarkantak: Amarkantak is a pilgrim town of Madhyapradesh and it is the meeting point of Vidhya, Satpura, and Maikal range. Major rivers such as Narmada, Tapi, and Son are originated from Amarkantak. 

Ghatshila: It is the town of Jharkhand. It is a picnic spot located on the bank of the Subarnrekha river. 

Tawang: Tawang is a tourist place and it is famous for its beautiful monasteries. It is the smallest district of Arunachal Pradesh and is located on the northwest side of Arunachal Pradesh.  

Neyyar: Neyyar is a tourist place near Trivantharam district.  There is the Neyyar river, Nayyar Wildlife sanctuary. and Neyyar Dam in the location.

Dandeli:  It is a famous tourist destination in Karnataka state. It is famous for its dense forests, birds species, and temples. 

Mulshi Lake: It is a major dam on the Mula river near Pune, Maharastra. It is famous for society's beauty.

(b) Explain the unusual intensity of dust storms and thunderstorms across India in the pre-monsoon period of the year 2008. (150 words, 10 marks)

The pre-monsoon season in India, which lasts from March to May, is characterized by the occurrence of dust storms and thunderstorms. However, in the year 2008, the intensity of these dust storms and thunderstorms was unusually high across India. Several factors contributed to this unusual intensity, which can be explained as follows:

1. Higher Temperature: The year 2008 witnessed higher than average temperatures during the pre-monsoon period. This led to the rapid heating of the land surface, which in turn resulted in a strong low-pressure system over the northwestern parts of India. This low-pressure system caused the wind patterns to shift, leading to the formation of strong dust storms and thunderstorms across the region. The increased temperature also caused a higher rate of evaporation, which resulted in more moisture being available in the atmosphere to fuel the thunderstorms.

2. Western Disturbances: The year 2008 also witnessed an increased number of western disturbances, which are low-pressure systems that originate in the Mediterranean region and travel eastwards towards India. These disturbances are known to cause rainfall and thunderstorms in northern and northwestern parts of India. The higher frequency of western disturbances in 2008 contributed to the increased intensity of dust storms and thunderstorms during the pre-monsoon period.

3. La Niña Effect: The year 2008 was a La Niña year, which is characterized by cooler than average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. La Niña events are known to influence weather patterns across the globe, including India. The La Niña effect in 2008 caused changes in the global wind patterns and contributed to the increased intensity of dust storms and thunderstorms in India during the pre-monsoon period.

4. Local Factors: Apart from large-scale climatic factors, several local factors also contributed to the unusual intensity of dust storms and thunderstorms in the pre-monsoon period of 2008. These include rapid urbanization, deforestation, and desertification, which have led to a reduction in vegetative cover and increased land surface temperatures. This, in turn, has made the local environment more conducive to the formation of dust storms and thunderstorms.

Some examples of the impact of these unusually intense dust storms and thunderstorms in 2008 include:

- In April 2008, a severe dust storm in Rajasthan, accompanied by high-speed winds, caused significant damage to property and agriculture. The storm also led to the deaths of over 40 people.

- In May 2008, a series of thunderstorms and dust storms affected various parts of India, including Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, causing widespread damage to crops and infrastructure. The storms also resulted in the deaths of several people and numerous injuries.

In conclusion, the unusual intensity of dust storms and thunderstorms in the pre-monsoon period of 2008 can be attributed to a combination of factors, including higher temperatures, increased frequency of western disturbances, the La Niña effect, and local factors such as rapid urbanization and deforestation. These extreme weather events had significant impacts on agriculture, infrastructure, and human lives across India.

(c) Why setting up of Water Management Boards is a controversial issue in India? (150 words, 10 marks)

Setting up Water Management Boards is a controversial issue in India due to several reasons, including interstate disputes, political interests, and concerns about equitable distribution of water resources. Here are some examples to illustrate the controversy:

1. Interstate Disputes: India has a long history of disputes between states over sharing and management of river waters. For instance, the Cauvery Water Dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu has been a bone of contention for decades. The formation of a Water Management Board may lead to disagreements over the allocation of water resources, as each state tends to safeguard its interests.

2. Political Interests: Water is a sensitive issue in India, and politicians often use it as a tool to garner votes during elections. The formation of Water Management Boards may lead to political maneuvering and allegations of favoritism, further complicating the issue.

3. Concerns over Equitable Distribution: The primary aim of Water Management Boards is to ensure the equitable distribution of water resources among various states. However, certain states may feel marginalized and deprived of their fair share of water resources, leading to protests and agitations.

4. Centralization of Power: The formation of Water Management Boards may lead to the centralization of power in the hands of a few officials, which can lead to corruption and inefficiency in the management of water resources.

5. Autonomy of States: Some states may argue that the formation of Water Management Boards is an infringement on their autonomy and their constitutionally guaranteed powers to manage their water resources.

6. Financial Burden: Setting up and maintaining Water Management Boards may also entail additional financial burden on the already strained resources of the states, leading to concerns over their viability and effectiveness.

An example of this controversy can be seen in the recent constitution of the Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) and the Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) in 2018. The formation of these regulatory bodies was met with strong opposition from the Karnataka government, which questioned the need for such bodies and alleged that they would not be able to ensure the equitable distribution of water.

In conclusion, the setting up of Water Management Boards in India is a controversial issue due to interstate disputes, political interests, and concerns about equitable distribution, centralization of power, state autonomy, and financial burden. To address these issues, it is crucial to develop a comprehensive and inclusive framework for water management that balances the interests of all stakeholders while ensuring the efficient and sustainable use of water resources.

(d) Keeping the recent developments in view, how can the energy crisis of India be circumvented by harnessing non-conventional energy resources?     (150 words, 10 marks)

India, being one of the fastest-growing economies, has seen a rapid increase in its energy demand. However, the country is still grappling with an energy crisis, largely due to its dependence on conventional energy resources such as coal and oil. Non-conventional energy resources, also known as renewable energy resources, can play a vital role in circumventing this crisis. The recent developments in this sector have made these resources more viable, efficient, and cost-effective.

Some of the ways in which non-conventional energy resources can help alleviate the energy crisis in India are:

1. Solar Energy: India receives abundant sunlight throughout the year, making solar energy one of the most promising non-conventional energy resources. The government has implemented several initiatives, such as the National Solar Mission, which aims to achieve 100 GW of solar power capacity by 2022. Furthermore, recent developments in solar panel technology have made them more efficient and affordable. For example, the Pavagada Solar Park in Karnataka has a capacity of 2,050 MW, making it one of the largest solar parks in the world.

2. Wind Energy: India has a vast coastline and significant wind energy potential. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of installed wind power capacity. Recent advancements in wind turbine technology have made it more efficient and cost-effective. The government has set a target of achieving 60 GW of wind power capacity by 2022. For instance, the Muppandal wind farm in Tamil Nadu is one of the largest onshore wind farms in the world, with a capacity of over 1,500 MW.

3. Biomass Energy: India has vast agricultural and forestry resources, which can be utilized to generate biomass energy. This can help in addressing the energy needs of rural areas and reducing the dependency on fossil fuels. The government has implemented various policies and schemes, such as the National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative, to promote the use of biomass energy. An example of biomass energy utilization is the Husk Power Systems in Bihar, which uses rice husk to generate electricity for rural households.

4. Small Hydro Power Projects: India has numerous rivers and streams, which can be harnessed to generate electricity through small hydro power projects. These projects have minimal environmental impact and can be set up in remote and hilly areas where grid connectivity is challenging. The government aims to achieve 10 GW of small hydro power capacity by 2022. An example of a small hydro power project is the 5 MW Gada Gushaini project in Himachal Pradesh.

5. Tidal and Wave Energy: India's long coastline offers significant potential for harnessing tidal and wave energy. Though still in its nascent stage, recent developments in technology have made these resources more viable. The government has set up the National Institute of Ocean Energy to conduct research in this field. For instance, the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat has been identified as a potential site for a tidal power project.

In conclusion, non-conventional energy resources can play a crucial role in circumventing the energy crisis in India. The recent developments in technology and supportive government policies have made these resources more viable and cost-effective. By harnessing the potential of solar, wind, biomass, small hydro, and tidal energy, India can not only meet its growing energy demand but also reduce its dependence on fossil fuels, ensuring a sustainable and secure energy future.

Q.2. (a) Distinguish the geographical aspects of the North-Western lava Plateau and Chotanagpur plateau of peninsular India.    (250 words, 20 marks)

The North-Western Lava Plateau and the Chotanagpur Plateau are two distinct geographical regions in peninsular India, each with its unique features and characteristics. The following are some of the key aspects that distinguish these two regions:

1. Geological Formation: The North-Western Lava Plateau, also known as the Deccan Plateau, is primarily composed of basaltic lava flows formed during the Cretaceous and early Tertiary period. The lava flows have created a series of horizontal layers, giving the plateau a step-like appearance. In contrast, the Chotanagpur Plateau is made up of ancient crystalline rocks, such as granite and gneiss, and has been shaped by the erosion of rivers.

2. Location: The North-Western Lava Plateau is situated in the western part of peninsular India, covering parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana. The Chotanagpur Plateau, on the other hand, is located in the eastern part of peninsular India, covering parts of Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.

3. Topography: The North-Western Lava Plateau is characterized by a relatively flat surface with gentle slopes, interspersed with isolated hills and plateaus, such as the Balaghat Plateau and the Ajanta Range. The Chotanagpur Plateau has a more rugged topography, with numerous hills, valleys, and gorges. The plateau is divided into several smaller plateaus, such as the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Koderma Plateau.

4. Drainage: The North-Western Lava Plateau is drained by several westward-flowing rivers, such as the Godavari, Krishna, and Bhima, which eventually empty into the Arabian Sea. The Chotanagpur Plateau, in contrast, is drained by several eastward-flowing rivers, such as the Damodar, Subarnarekha, and the South Koel, which are part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system.

5. Climate: The North-Western Lava Plateau experiences a semi-arid to sub-humid climate, with moderate to low rainfall and high temperatures. The Chotanagpur Plateau experiences a tropical climate, with relatively higher rainfall and more moderate temperatures.

6. Vegetation: The North-Western Lava Plateau is characterized by drought-resistant vegetation, such as scrub forests and grasslands. The Chotanagpur Plateau, on the other hand, is home to a mix of deciduous and evergreen forests, with Sal, Bamboo, and Mahua being some of the dominant tree species.

7. Mineral Resources: The Chotanagpur Plateau is known for its rich mineral resources, such as coal, iron ore, bauxite, and manganese, making it an important industrial region in India. The North-Western Lava Plateau, in contrast, has fewer mineral resources, with basalt being the primary resource used for construction purposes.

8. Agriculture: The North-Western Lava Plateau is known for its fertile black cotton soil, which is suitable for the cultivation of cotton, sugarcane, and various pulses. The Chotanagpur Plateau has less fertile soil, with agriculture primarily focusing on the cultivation of rice, wheat, and various millets.

In summary, the North-Western Lava Plateau and the Chotanagpur Plateau are two distinct geographical regions in peninsular India, each with its unique geological formations, topography, climate, vegetation, and resource distribution.

(b) Explain the contemporary agricultural scenario in the context of rapid urbanization in India.    (200 words, 15 marks)

The contemporary agricultural scenario in India is characterized by numerous challenges and opportunities, all set against the backdrop of rapid urbanization. Urbanization has led to a shrinking of agricultural land, migration of rural labor force, and changing food consumption patterns, which together have a significant impact on the agricultural sector. At the same time, urbanization has also opened up new markets and enabled the adoption of modern farming technologies. In this context, let's discuss some major aspects of the contemporary agricultural scenario in India:

1. Loss of agricultural land: With the increase in urbanization, agricultural land is being converted to non-agricultural uses such as residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. For example, between 2001 and 2011, India lost about 2.43 million hectares of agricultural land due to urban expansion. This loss of fertile agricultural land impacts food production and threatens food security.
2. Migration of labor force: Rapid urbanization has led to a significant migration of the rural population to urban areas, resulting in a decline in the agricultural labor force. As a result, there is a shortage of labor in rural areas, which in turn increases the cost of labor, reducing the competitiveness of the agricultural sector. For example, the agriculture sector's share of total employment in India fell from 60% in 1991 to 42% in 2020.
3. Changing food consumption patterns: Urbanization has led to a change in food consumption patterns, with a growing demand for protein-rich diets and processed foods. This has resulted in a shift of focus from traditional food crops to high-value crops like fruits, vegetables, and animal products. For instance, the consumption of fruits and vegetables has increased by 25% in the last two decades in India, which has led to an increase in their cultivation.
4. Water scarcity and pollution: Urbanization has increased the demand for water resources, leading to water scarcity in rural areas. Additionally, pollution from industries and urban waste has also contributed to the contamination of water sources. This affects the agricultural sector as it relies heavily on water for irrigation. For example, approximately 89% of the total freshwater withdrawal in India is used for agriculture.
5. Adoption of modern farming techniques: Urbanization has facilitated the adoption of modern farming techniques and technologies, such as drip irrigation, polyhouse farming, and precision agriculture. These technologies have helped increase productivity, reduce resource wastage, and improve the overall sustainability of the agricultural sector. For example, the use of drip irrigation in India has grown from 1.2 million hectares in 2005 to 5.5 million hectares in 2019.
6. Market access and infrastructure: Urbanization has led to improved infrastructure and better market access for farmers, enabling them to sell their produce in urban markets and fetch higher prices. This has helped in increasing the income of farmers and reducing rural poverty. For instance, the government's initiative to build rural roads under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana has significantly improved rural connectivity and facilitated agricultural marketing.

In conclusion, rapid urbanization in India has indeed transformed the contemporary agricultural scenario. On the one hand, it has resulted in the loss of agricultural land, labor migration, and water scarcity, posing significant challenges for the sector. On the other hand, it has opened up new markets and opportunities for high-value crops, technology adoption, and improved infrastructure. In this context, a balanced approach that addresses these challenges while leveraging the opportunities is essential for ensuring the sustainable growth of agriculture in India.

(c) Assess the suitability of Special Economic Zones(SEZs) for sustainable economic development in India.   (200 words, 15 marks)

Special Economic Zones (SEZs) have been established in various countries as a means to promote economic growth and development. In India, SEZs were introduced in 2000 with the objective of enhancing exports, attracting foreign investment, and creating employment opportunities. While SEZs have had some positive impacts on the Indian economy, their overall suitability for sustainable economic development can be assessed by examining their social, economic, and environmental effects.

1. Economic Impact:
SEZs have contributed to an increase in exports and foreign direct investment (FDI) in India. They have attracted both domestic and international investors due to the various incentives provided by the government, such as tax holidays, duty-free imports, and single-window clearance systems. For example, SEZs accounted for 30% of India's total exports in 2019-20, and FDI inflows into Indian SEZs have increased from $2.9 billion in 2005-06 to $61.6 billion in 2018-19.

Moreover, SEZs have been successful in generating employment opportunities. According to a report by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, SEZs have created over 2.1 million direct jobs as of 2020. However, there have been concerns about the quality of these jobs, as many are low-skilled and low-paying.

2. Social Impact:
SEZs have had mixed social impacts. On one hand, they have provided employment opportunities and contributed to poverty reduction in some areas. For instance, the Mundra SEZ in Gujarat has created job opportunities for local communities and improved their living standards.

On the other hand, SEZs have also led to the displacement of local communities due to land acquisition, resulting in loss of livelihoods and social unrest. For example, the acquisition of agricultural land for the Nandigram SEZ in West Bengal led to violent protests and resistance from the local population. This highlights the need for a more inclusive and participatory approach to planning and implementing SEZs.

3. Environmental Impact:
The establishment of SEZs has raised concerns about their environmental sustainability. Many SEZs in India are located in ecologically sensitive areas, leading to the conversion of agricultural land, deforestation, and destruction of habitats. For example, the proposed Posco SEZ in Odisha faced opposition due to its potential impact on the local environment and biodiversity.

Furthermore, SEZs have been criticized for promoting unsustainable, resource-intensive industries with high pollution levels. The lack of stringent environmental regulations and monitoring in SEZs can lead to the degradation of the environment and depletion of natural resources. This undermines the long-term sustainability of economic development in these areas.

In conclusion, while Special Economic Zones have contributed to economic growth and development in India, their overall suitability for sustainable development is debatable. SEZs have had positive impacts in terms of increased exports, FDI inflows, and employment generation. However, they have also led to socio-economic disparities, displacement of local communities, and environmental degradation.

To ensure the long-term sustainability of SEZs in India, there is a need for more inclusive planning and implementation, better integration with the local economy, stringent environmental regulations, and the promotion of sustainable industries. Only then can SEZs truly contribute to sustainable economic development in the country.

Q.3. (a) Examine the ongoing process of agricultural diversification and its implications for food security in India.     (250 words, 20 marks)

(a) Agricultural diversification refers to the shift from the traditional monoculture farming system to the cultivation of a wide variety of crops, livestock, aquaculture, and other agro-based activities. This process is crucial for achieving food security, increasing farmers' incomes, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices in India. The ongoing process of agricultural diversification in India has several implications for food security:

1. Food availability: Diversification of agriculture leads to an increase in the production of various food items, ensuring a stable supply of food for the growing population. For instance, India has diversified its cropping pattern from predominantly cereal-based agriculture to include pulses, oilseeds, fruits, and vegetables. This has led to a more varied food basket, reducing the country's dependence on a few staple crops such as rice and wheat.

2. Nutritional security: Diversification of agriculture promotes the production of nutrient-rich food items, such as fruits, vegetables, pulses, and livestock products. This helps in addressing the problem of malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies prevalent among the Indian population. For example, the production of pulses, which are rich in proteins, has increased significantly in the last few years, contributing to better nutritional outcomes.

3. Climate resilience: Agricultural diversification helps in building resilience against climate change by promoting the cultivation of crops that are more tolerant to extreme weather events and pests. For instance, millets and sorghum, which are more drought-resistant than rice and wheat, are being promoted in rain-fed areas to ensure food security amid climate uncertainties.

4. Income security: Diversification of agriculture provides farmers with multiple income sources, reducing their vulnerability to crop failure and price fluctuations. For example, farmers engaged in livestock rearing, pisciculture, or horticulture can generate additional income, ensuring their economic well-being and food security.

5. Sustainable agriculture: Agricultural diversification promotes sustainable farming practices by reducing the pressure on land and water resources. Crop rotation, mixed farming, and agroforestry are some of the practices that help in maintaining soil fertility, reducing water use, and enhancing biodiversity.

However, there are certain challenges in promoting agricultural diversification in India:
(i) Small land holdings: The majority of Indian farmers have small land holdings, which makes it difficult for them to experiment with new crops or farming practices.
(ii) Market access: Farmers often face difficulties in accessing markets for their diversified produce due to inadequate infrastructure and marketing facilities.
(iii) Financial constraints: Lack of access to credit and insurance facilities hinders farmers from investing in new technologies, seeds, and other inputs required for agricultural diversification.
(iv) Policy support: Agricultural policies in India have traditionally focused on cereal production, with insufficient emphasis on promoting diversification.

In conclusion, agricultural diversification plays a crucial role in ensuring food security in India. However, to fully harness its potential, there is a need for concerted efforts by the government and other stakeholders to address the challenges faced by farmers and provide them with the necessary support and incentives to adopt diversified and sustainable farming practices.

(b) Account for the persisting negative trade balance of India.    (200 words, 15 marks)

India has been facing a negative trade balance, also known as a trade deficit, for quite some time. This means that the value of its imports is greater than the value of its exports. There are several factors that have contributed to this situation:

1. Dependence on oil imports: India is heavily reliant on oil imports to meet its energy requirements. The country imports nearly 80% of its crude oil needs. Fluctuations in global oil prices directly impact India's trade deficit, especially when prices surge.
2. Gold imports: India is one of the largest consumers of gold in the world. The import of gold is another significant factor contributing to the trade deficit. Gold imports are driven by both domestic consumption and investment demand, as well as cultural factors like weddings and festivals.
3. Low export competitiveness: India's export basket is dominated by low value-added products like textiles, gems and jewelry, and agricultural products. The country has not been able to diversify its export base to include high value-added products like electronics, machinery, and automobiles. This has led to limited export growth and increased vulnerability to global economic shocks.
4. High dependence on imports for capital goods and technology: India has been unable to develop a strong domestic manufacturing base for capital goods and high-tech products. This has led to a high dependence on imports, particularly from countries like China, Japan, and Germany. This has further widened the trade deficit.
5. Slow growth in services exports: Although India has emerged as a major exporter of services, particularly in the IT and IT-enabled sectors, the growth in services exports has not been able to offset the rising trade deficit in goods. Additionally, the global economic slowdown has adversely affected the growth of India's services exports.
6. Inadequate infrastructure and logistics: Inadequate infrastructure, poor logistics, and inefficiencies in the supply chain have increased the cost of doing business in India. This has adversely affected the competitiveness of Indian exports in global markets.
7. Trade barriers and protectionist policies: Indian exporters face numerous trade barriers, including high tariffs, non-tariff barriers, and stringent regulations in key export markets. Protectionist policies adopted by some countries, particularly in the wake of the global economic slowdown, have further hampered the growth of India's exports.

8. Exchange rate fluctuations: The depreciation of the Indian Rupee against major currencies has made imports more expensive, thereby widening the trade deficit. While a weaker currency should ideally boost exports, structural bottlenecks and the lack of export competitiveness have limited the gains from a depreciating currency.

In conclusion, the persisting negative trade balance in India can be attributed to a combination of factors, including heavy dependence on oil and gold imports, limited export competitiveness, and slow growth in services exports. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive strategy that includes diversifying the export base, improving infrastructure and logistics, enhancing the competitiveness of domestic industries, and engaging in proactive trade diplomacy to address trade barriers.

(c) Critically assess the vanishing ethnic linguistic plurality of India.    (200 words, 15 marks)

The linguistic plurality of India is an essential aspect of the country's cultural and ethnic diversity. However, in recent years, the linguistic plurality of India seems to be vanishing at an alarming rate. This has led to concerns about the loss of India's rich cultural heritage and the extinction of many ethnic languages.

There are various factors contributing to the vanishing ethnic linguistic plurality in India. Some of these factors include:
1. Globalization and Modernization: With the advent of globalization, there has been an increased emphasis on the use of English and Hindi as the primary languages for communication. The process of modernization and urbanization has led to the migration of people from rural to urban areas, leading to the assimilation of different ethnic groups and a loss of their linguistic diversity.
2. Education and Employment: The Indian education system focuses on the teaching of English and Hindi, which are considered essential for social and economic mobility. This has resulted in a decline in the usage of ethnic languages, as people prioritize learning these languages for better education and job prospects.
3. Assimilation and Integration: Many ethnic linguistic groups are assimilated into the dominant community in India, leading to the loss of their unique linguistic identity. For example, the Toda community of the Nilgiri Hills has seen a decline in their language and culture due to the influence of the neighboring Tamil-speaking communities.
4. Lack of Recognition and Support: Many ethnic languages in India are not officially recognized by the government, leading to a lack of support and resources for their preservation and promotion. This has resulted in a decline in the number of speakers and the eventual extinction of these languages.
5. Inter-generational Language Shift: The younger generations are increasingly adopting the dominant languages for communication and education, leading to a decline in the use of their ancestral languages. This inter-generational language shift is a significant reason for the vanishing linguistic plurality in India.

Despite the vanishing ethnic linguistic plurality, there are several initiatives and efforts taken by the government and non-governmental organizations to preserve and promote these languages. For example, the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) has initiated numerous programs and schemes to document, develop and promote Indian languages, including the lesser-known and endangered ones.
Furthermore, the inclusion of 22 languages in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution provides a degree of recognition and protection to these languages. Community-based language revitalization efforts, such as the Khasi Language Movement in Meghalaya, have also shown promising results in preserving and promoting ethnic languages.

In conclusion, the vanishing ethnic linguistic plurality in India is a matter of grave concern as it leads to the erosion of the country's rich cultural and linguistic diversity. Although some efforts have been made to preserve and promote these languages, a more concerted and comprehensive approach is required to ensure the survival and growth of India's linguistic plurality. This would involve not only government initiatives but also community participation and awareness about the importance and value of India's linguistic heritage.

Q.4. (a) Examine the driving forces of changing urban morphology of million-plus cities of India with suitable examples.     (250 words, 20 marks)

Urban morphology refers to the study of the form, structure, and development of urban spaces, including their layout, patterns, and interactions between different components. In India, the million-plus cities are experiencing rapid changes in their urban morphology due to various driving forces. These driving forces can be broadly categorized into demographic, economic, socio-cultural, political, and technological factors.

1. Demographic Factors: India has witnessed significant population growth and urbanization in the past few decades. The migration of people from rural areas to these million-plus cities in search of better livelihood opportunities has led to an increase in population density and the expansion of urban areas. For example, cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore have experienced rapid population growth, leading to the development of new residential areas, vertical growth in housing, and the expansion of slums and informal settlements.

2. Economic Factors: The liberalization of the Indian economy in 1991 and the subsequent growth of the service sector, information technology, and other industries have played a critical role in transforming the urban morphology of million-plus cities. The growth of these industries has led to the development of new commercial and industrial areas, the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), and the growth of satellite towns. For example, the IT boom in Bangalore has led to the development of Electronic City and Whitefield as major IT hubs, while the growth of the automobile industry in Chennai has given rise to the Oragadam industrial corridor.

3. Socio-cultural Factors: The increasing influence of globalization and exposure to international lifestyles and standards have led to changing preferences and aspirations among urban residents. This has resulted in the development of new urban forms like gated communities, integrated townships, and mixed-use developments that cater to the evolving needs and aspirations of the population. For instance, cities like Gurgaon and Pune have witnessed the growth of such urban forms that combine residential, commercial, and recreational spaces within a single development.

4. Political Factors: Government policies and interventions have played a significant role in shaping the urban morphology of million-plus cities. The implementation of urban renewal schemes, housing policies, and infrastructure development projects has led to the transformation of urban spaces. For example, the redevelopment of the Sabarmati riverfront in Ahmedabad has transformed the city's urban landscape, while the Metro rail projects in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata have influenced the development patterns around their corridors.

5. Technological Factors: Advancements in technology and the adoption of smart city concepts have also contributed to the changing urban morphology of million-plus cities. The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for urban planning, the implementation of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) for traffic management, and the adoption of green building technologies for sustainable development have all played a role in transforming the urban landscape. For example, the development of the Dholera Smart City near Ahmedabad aims to incorporate smart city technologies and sustainable infrastructure to create a model for future urban development in India.

In conclusion, the urban morphology of million-plus cities in India is undergoing rapid transformations due to various driving forces. These changes are evident in the expansion of urban areas, the development of new urban forms, and the adoption of innovative technologies for sustainable urban development. Understanding these driving forces is crucial for effective urban planning and management to ensure the sustainable growth of these cities in the future.

(b) Discuss the emerging geo-political scenario of the Indian Ocean realm. (200 words, 15 marks)

The Indian Ocean realm has been gaining attention in recent years due to its strategic geographic location, abundant natural resources, and increasing geo-political significance. The emerging geo-political scenario in the region is characterized by growing competition among major powers, increasing militarization, and rising security concerns. This scenario is influenced by several factors, including:
1. Strategic Location: The Indian Ocean connects the economically dynamic regions of East Asia, Europe, and Africa through key sea lanes of communication (SLOCs). Approximately 80% of the world's seaborne oil trade passes through this region, making it a vital artery for the global economy. The Indian Ocean is also home to several strategic chokepoints, such as the Strait of Hormuz, the Strait of Malacca, and the Bab el-Mandeb, which further accentuates its geo-political significance.
2. Rise of India and China: The increasing economic and military power of India and China has led to a growing rivalry between the two countries in the Indian Ocean region. Both countries are seeking to expand their influence and secure their interests in the area. For instance, China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) includes several infrastructure projects in the Indian Ocean region, which India views with suspicion. On the other hand, India's growing naval capabilities and its strategic partnerships with countries like the United States, Japan, and Australia have raised concerns in Beijing.
3. United States' 'Pivot to Asia': The United States has recognized the increasing importance of the Indian Ocean region and has shifted its strategic focus towards Asia under its 'Pivot to Asia' policy. This has led to greater engagement with countries in the region, including India, and a more assertive military presence to counter China's growing influence.
4. Maritime Security Challenges: The Indian Ocean faces several maritime security challenges, including piracy, terrorism, and illegal fishing. For example, the waters off the coast of Somalia have been notorious for piracy, while terrorist organizations like Al-Qaeda and ISIS have been known to operate in the region. These challenges pose significant threats to the safety and security of the SLOCs and have prompted countries to increase their naval presence and engage in cooperative security initiatives.
5. Resource Competition: The Indian Ocean is rich in natural resources, such as oil, gas, minerals, and fisheries. The increasing demand for these resources has prompted countries to expand their presence and secure their access to them. This has led to territorial disputes and competition in the region. For instance, there have been disputes between India and Sri Lanka over fishing rights, and between India and Pakistan over the maritime boundary in the Sir Creek area.
6. Climate Change and Environmental Concerns: The Indian Ocean region is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and ocean acidification. These challenges have significant implications for the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on the ocean's resources and can exacerbate existing geo-political tensions.

In conclusion, the emerging geo-political scenario in the Indian Ocean realm is characterized by growing competition among major powers, an increasing focus on maritime security, and the need to address environmental challenges. The region's strategic importance is expected to continue to grow, making it a key arena for geo-political rivalry and cooperation in the coming years.

(c) Give a critical account of region-specific constraints of sustainable tourism in India. (200 words, 15 marks)

Sustainable tourism refers to the concept of visiting a place as a tourist and trying to make only a positive impact on the environment, society, and economy. It involves the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social, and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity, and life support systems. In India, sustainable tourism faces various region-specific constraints that hinder its development and growth. Some of these constraints are:
1. Environmental Constraints: The diverse ecological conditions in India, ranging from the Himalayan region to coastal areas, deserts, and forests, pose significant challenges to the sustainable development of tourism. For example, the fragile ecosystems in the mountainous regions of Ladakh, Sikkim, and Uttarakhand may not be able to support mass tourism without causing significant environmental degradation. Similarly, the coastal regions like Goa face issues of beach erosion and pollution due to excessive tourism activities.
2. Socio-cultural Constraints: The diverse cultural and social fabric of India poses challenges for sustainable tourism development. Many tourist destinations are associated with religious and cultural significance, which can lead to conflicts between tourists and local communities, particularly if tourists do not respect local customs and traditions. For example, the commercialization of religious places like Varanasi and Puri can lead to a loss of cultural values and identity for the local population.
3. Infrastructure Constraints: The lack of adequate infrastructure is a significant constraint on sustainable tourism development in India. Many tourist destinations suffer from poor connectivity, inadequate accommodations, and limited water and sanitation facilities. This not only hampers the growth of tourism but also puts pressure on the existing resources, leading to environmental degradation and a decline in the quality of life for the local population. For instance, popular hill stations like Shimla and Manali face issues of overcrowding, traffic congestion, and inadequate waste management facilities.
4. Policy and Regulatory Constraints: The lack of a comprehensive and coherent policy framework for sustainable tourism development is a significant constraint in India. The existing policies and regulations often focus on promoting mass tourism without considering the social, cultural, and environmental impacts of tourism activities. Moreover, the implementation of existing laws and regulations is often weak, leading to unplanned and unregulated growth of tourism in ecologically sensitive areas.
5. Economic Constraints: Sustainable tourism development requires significant investments in infrastructure, capacity building, and marketing. However, limited financial resources and competing priorities often constrain the government's ability to invest in sustainable tourism initiatives. Moreover, the benefits of tourism often do not percolate to the local communities, leading to a lack of support for sustainable tourism initiatives. For example, the growth of mass tourism in Rajasthan has not necessarily translated into higher incomes and improved living standards for the local population.
6. Lack of Awareness and Capacity Building: There is a general lack of awareness about the concept of sustainable tourism among various stakeholders, including tourists, service providers, and policymakers. This hampers the development and implementation of sustainable tourism initiatives. Moreover, limited capacity building initiatives for local communities, service providers, and government officials further constrain the development of sustainable tourism in India.

In conclusion, sustainable tourism in India faces various region-specific constraints that need to be addressed through a comprehensive and integrated approach. This would involve strengthening the policy and regulatory framework, investing in infrastructure development, promoting awareness and capacity building, and ensuring that the benefits of tourism are equitably distributed among all stakeholders.