UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2019: Geography Paper 2 (Section- B) | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each:     ( 10 *5=50)
(a) Present the salient features of the west-flowing rivers of India.

The west-flowing rivers in India hold great significance in terms of their contribution to the country's geography, hydrology, and economy. These rivers flow westwards from the Western Ghats and drain into the Arabian Sea. The major west-flowing rivers include the Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, Sabarmati, and numerous smaller rivers along the western coastline. Here are the salient features of the west-flowing rivers of India:
1. Origin and Course: West-flowing rivers originate from the Western Ghats, one of the most significant mountain ranges in India. These rivers flow through the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan before draining into the Arabian Sea. The Narmada and Tapi rivers are the largest west-flowing rivers in India.
2. Catchment Area: The west-flowing rivers have a relatively smaller catchment area compared to the east-flowing rivers, as they have a shorter course from their origin to the sea. However, they still contribute significantly to the drainage system of India, covering about 3% of the country's total area.
3. Structural Characteristics: The west-flowing rivers are characterized by their structural control, as they mostly flow through rift valleys and follow the slope gradient. The Narmada and Tapi rivers flow through the rift valleys formed due to the movement of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
4. Erosional Features: The west-flowing rivers exhibit various erosional features such as V-shaped valleys, deep gorges, and waterfalls due to their youthful stage. For instance, the Narmada River flows through the Marble Rocks in Bhedaghat, creating a gorge with a depth of about 100 feet.
5. Waterfalls: Due to their course through the Western Ghats, which are characterized by steep slopes, the west-flowing rivers often form spectacular waterfalls. Some notable examples include the Dhuandhar Falls on the Narmada River and the Gira Falls on the Ambika River.
6. Navigability: The west-flowing rivers are generally not navigable due to their fast flow and presence of rapids and waterfalls. However, some stretches of these rivers, especially in the lower plains, can be navigable during the monsoon season.
7. Hydroelectric Potential: The west-flowing rivers have significant hydroelectric potential due to their steep gradient and perennial water flow. The Narmada River alone has a hydroelectric potential of about 3,000 MW, which is being harnessed through various hydroelectric projects such as the Sardar Sarovar Dam and the Indira Sagar Dam.
8. Water Resource Management: The west-flowing rivers play a crucial role in water resource management in the western parts of India, providing irrigation facilities, drinking water, and supporting various industrial activities. The Narmada River, for instance, provides water to over 20 million people and irrigates more than 1.8 million hectares of land through various canal systems.
9. Estuaries and Coastal Features: The west-flowing rivers form estuaries and deltas as they meet the Arabian Sea, which support diverse ecosystems and provide livelihood opportunities for local communities. The Gulf of Khambhat, formed by the estuaries of the Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, and Sabarmati rivers, is an important fishing ground and supports a variety of marine life.
10. Riverine Islands: The west-flowing rivers also have numerous riverine islands, which are formed due to the deposition of sediments carried by these rivers. Aliabet Island, located at the mouth of the Narmada River, is one such example.

In conclusion, the west-flowing rivers of India hold immense significance in shaping the country's geography, hydrology, and economy. They exhibit unique characteristics such as their origin in the Western Ghats, structural control, and erosional features. Additionally, these rivers play a crucial role in water resource management, hydroelectric power generation, and supporting various ecosystems.

(b) Discuss the problems of wildlife conservation and management in India.

Wildlife conservation and management in India face numerous challenges, which include the following:
1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: The foremost problem for wildlife conservation in India is the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. Rapid urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural expansion have led to encroachment upon forest land, wetlands, and other natural habitats, resulting in the shrinking of wildlife habitats. For instance, the natural habitats of the Bengal Tiger and the Asian Elephant have been reduced due to human activities, leading to a decline in their populations.
2. Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade: Poaching of endangered species for their body parts and their illegal trade is a significant threat to wildlife conservation in India. Animals like tigers, rhinoceros, elephants, and various species of birds are targeted for their skin, bones, horns, ivory, and feathers, which fetch high prices in the international market. The famous Sariska Tiger Reserve lost all its tigers to poaching in 2004, highlighting the severity of this problem.
3. Human-Wildlife Conflicts: The shrinking natural habitats have led to an increase in human-wildlife conflicts. Animals such as elephants, tigers, and leopards often stray into human settlements in search of food, leading to crop damage, property destruction, and loss of human lives. This, in turn, results in animosity towards wildlife and poses a challenge to conservation efforts. For example, the conflict between humans and elephants in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve has increased in recent years, leading to numerous casualties on both sides.
4. Inadequate Legal Framework and Enforcement: Although India has enacted several laws and regulations for wildlife conservation, such as the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and the establishment of protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, the implementation and enforcement of these laws remain weak. Corruption, lack of resources, and poor coordination among various agencies hamper effective law enforcement, making it difficult to curb poaching and illegal wildlife trade.
5. Lack of Awareness and Community Participation: The lack of awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation among the general public and local communities is a significant challenge. Local communities often perceive wildlife conservation as a hindrance to their livelihood and development. Therefore, there is a need to promote awareness and involve local communities in conservation efforts, as seen in the successful Joint Forest Management (JFM) initiatives in various parts of the country.
6. Climate Change and Pollution: Climate change poses a severe threat to wildlife conservation in India. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events can lead to shifts in species distribution, loss of habitats, and species extinction. Pollution, including air, water, and soil pollution, also adversely impacts wildlife health and their habitats. For example, climate change has been linked to the decline in the population of the black-necked crane in Ladakh.
7. Invasive Alien Species: The introduction of invasive alien species can have detrimental effects on native wildlife and their habitats. They can outcompete native species for resources, alter ecosystems, and transmit diseases. For example, the African catfish, introduced in Indian waters, has been responsible for the decline of native fish species in several ecosystems.

In conclusion, wildlife conservation and management in India face multiple challenges, including habitat loss, poaching, human-wildlife conflicts, inadequate legal enforcement, lack of awareness, climate change, and invasive species. Addressing these issues requires a holistic approach involving legal reforms, better enforcement, community participation, awareness generation, and international cooperation.

(c) Correlate the price of land, vertical growth of cities, and the growth of slums in large cities of India. 

The price of land, vertical growth of cities, and the growth of slums in large cities of India are interrelated factors that significantly impact the urban landscape and socio-economic conditions of the country. The correlation between these factors can be better understood by analyzing the underlying causes and effects that influence them.

1. Price of Land: The increasing demand for land in large cities of India, driven by rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth, has led to a surge in the price of land. This surge can be attributed to factors such as limited availability of land, speculative activities in the real estate market, and high demand for residential and commercial spaces. High land prices have a direct impact on the affordability of housing, especially for the economically weaker sections of society.

Example: In cities like Mumbai and Delhi, the exorbitant land prices have made it extremely difficult for people with low or moderate incomes to afford decent housing, forcing them to live in slums or informal settlements.

2. Vertical Growth of Cities: In response to the increasing demand for land and escalating land prices, cities in India have witnessed vertical growth in the form of high-rise buildings and skyscrapers. This vertical growth is seen as a solution to accommodating the growing population and catering to the demand for commercial and residential spaces in a limited land area.

Example: Cities like Mumbai, Bangalore, and Gurgaon have seen a significant increase in the number of high-rise buildings and skyscrapers in recent years.

3. Growth of Slums: The growth of slums in large cities of India is a direct consequence of the increasing land prices and lack of affordable housing options. People who cannot afford to buy or rent decent housing in the formal market are forced to live in informal settlements, which are characterized by inadequate basic services, poor infrastructure, and substandard living conditions. The growth of slums also indicates the failure of urban planning and policies to address the housing needs of the urban poor.
Example: Dharavi in Mumbai, one of the largest slums in Asia, is home to more than a million people who live in cramped and unhygienic conditions due to the lack of affordable housing options in the city.

Correlation: The price of land, vertical growth of cities, and the growth of slums in large cities of India are closely related to each other. High land prices lead to vertical growth as a solution to accommodate the increasing demand for land in cities. However, this vertical growth further escalates land prices, making housing even more unaffordable for the urban poor. As a result, people are forced to live in slums, which continue to grow in size and number. This vicious cycle of high land prices, vertical growth, and slum proliferation highlights the need for effective urban planning and housing policies that cater to the needs of all sections of society, especially the economically weaker sections.

In conclusion, the correlation between the price of land, vertical growth of cities, and the growth of slums in large cities of India reflects the need for a comprehensive and inclusive approach to urban planning and development. Addressing these interconnected issues is crucial for achieving sustainable urban growth and improving the quality of life for all city dwellers in India.

(d). Assess the importance of foot-loose industries in the development of backward regions in India. 

Foot-loose industries refer to those industries that can be located in any area without being affected by locational factors such as availability of raw materials, proximity to markets, or dependence on transportation facilities. These industries are not tied to specific locations and can be easily moved or re-located. They are typically characterized by low capital investment, small-scale operations, and a high degree of flexibility in terms of location. Examples of foot-loose industries include software development, Information Technology (IT) enabled services, and electronic goods manufacturing.
In the context of India, foot-loose industries have been playing a crucial role in the development of backward regions. The importance of foot-loose industries in the development of these regions can be assessed through the following factors:
1. Employment generation: Foot-loose industries have the potential to generate large-scale employment, especially in the services sector. This is particularly important for backward regions in India that often suffer from high levels of unemployment and underemployment. The establishment of IT parks and software development centers in Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, like Mysuru, Bhubaneswar, and Indore, have created significant employment opportunities for local populations.
2. Infrastructure development: The growth of foot-loose industries in backward regions can lead to improvements in infrastructure facilities, such as roads, electricity, and telecommunications. For instance, the establishment of IT parks and Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in less developed regions has led to the development of better road networks, reliable power supply, and improved internet connectivity.
3. Skill development: Foot-loose industries, particularly IT and IT-enabled services, have contributed to skill development in backward regions by providing specialized training and skill-upgradation programs. As a result, the workforce in these regions has become more skilled and employable, leading to higher incomes and improved living standards.
4. Regional dispersal of industries: Foot-loose industries help in the regional dispersal of industries and economic activities, thereby reducing the pressure on already congested urban centers. For example, the growth of IT and electronics industries in Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities has led to the decongestion of metropolitan cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad.
5. Economic diversification: The growth of foot-loose industries in backward regions promotes economic diversification, reducing the dependence on traditional sectors like agriculture and mining. This diversification helps in reducing regional income disparities and promoting balanced regional development.
6. Attraction of investment: The success of foot-loose industries in a region can attract further investment, both domestic and foreign, leading to the overall development of the region. For example, the growth of the IT sector in cities like Pune and Jaipur has attracted investments in real estate, hospitality, and retail sectors, further boosting the regional economy.

In conclusion, foot-loose industries have a significant role to play in the development of backward regions in India. By generating employment, improving infrastructure, promoting skill development, and attracting investment, these industries can contribute to the overall socio-economic development of these regions. Therefore, it is essential for policymakers to create an enabling environment for the growth of foot-loose industries in India's backward regions to ensure balanced and inclusive development.

5. (e) Examine the problems of Glacial Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) in India. 

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) is a sudden release of a large volume of water from a glacial lake due to the breach of the natural dam formed by ice or moraine deposits. GLOFs are a significant threat in the Himalayan region of India, where glacial lake formations are common due to the melting of glaciers. The glacial lakes are highly sensitive to climate change, and the increasing global temperature has accelerated the melting of glaciers, resulting in the formation of more glacial lakes. GLOFs can cause catastrophic damage to life, property, and infrastructure downstream, and also have long-term impacts on river systems, ecology, and local communities.
Some problems associated with GLOFs in India are:

1. Loss of life and property: GLOFs can cause a sudden surge of water and debris flow downstream, leading to flash floods, landslides, and destruction of human settlements, agricultural lands, and infrastructure. For example, in 2013, a GLOF event in the Kedarnath region of Uttarakhand led to the death of thousands of people and massive damage to property and infrastructure.

2. Damage to infrastructure: GLOFs can cause extensive damage to roads, bridges, dams, and hydropower projects, disrupting connectivity and economic activities in the region. For instance, the 2004 Parechu Lake outburst in Himachal Pradesh caused significant damage to the strategically important Hindustan-Tibet road.
3. Impact on river systems: GLOFs can alter river systems by changing the sediment load, river morphology, and flow patterns downstream. This can lead to increased riverbank erosion, sedimentation, and flooding in the downstream areas, affecting agriculture and settlements.
4. Ecological impacts: The sudden release of large amounts of water and debris can have severe ecological impacts, including loss of biodiversity, destruction of habitats, and alteration of ecosystems. The increased sediment load in rivers can also affect aquatic life and water quality.
5. Impact on local communities: GLOFs can have long-term impacts on local communities, affecting their livelihoods, food security, and access to resources. The loss of agricultural land, infrastructure, and livelihood opportunities can lead to increased poverty and migration of people from affected areas.
6. Challenges in early warning and mitigation: The remote and rugged terrain of the Himalayan region makes it difficult to monitor and predict GLOF events. The lack of reliable data on glacial lakes, their dynamics, and the factors that trigger GLOFs makes early warning and mitigation a significant challenge.

In conclusion, the increasing occurrence of GLOFs in India due to climate change poses a significant threat to the socio-economic and environmental well-being of the region. Addressing these problems requires a comprehensive approach, including robust monitoring and early warning systems, improved land-use planning, and community-based disaster risk reduction strategies. Additionally, it is crucial to invest in research to better understand the dynamics of glacial lakes and GLOFs and develop effective mitigation measures to minimize their impacts.

Q.6. (a) "Intrabasins linkages of rivers are more feasible economically, socially, and ecologically." Discuss with suitable examples from India.     (250 words, 20 marks).

Intrabasin linkages of rivers refer to the connections made between rivers that originate, flow, and terminate within the same drainage basin. These linkages aim to transfer and manage water resources, in order to meet the demand for irrigation, drinking water, and other purposes. Intrabasin linkages are often considered more feasible economically, socially, and ecologically in comparison to interbasin linkages, which involve connecting rivers from different drainage basins.
There are several factors that make intrabasin linkages more viable:

1. Economic feasibility: Intrabasin linkages generally involve shorter distances for the transfer of water, which means lower costs for construction and maintenance of canals and other infrastructures. For example, the successful intrabasin linkage project between the Krishna and Godavari rivers in Andhra Pradesh, India, has allowed for the efficient transfer of water at a relatively low cost.
2. Social feasibility: Intrabasin linkages have lesser social impacts as they do not require displacement of people, unlike interbasin transfers, which often necessitate the construction of large dams and reservoirs. The Sardar Sarovar Project on the Narmada River, an interbasin transfer, has led to massive displacement and rehabilitation issues for the local population, whereas intrabasin projects like the Parambikulam-Aliyar Project (PAP) in Tamil Nadu and Kerala have had minimal social impacts.
3. Ecological feasibility: Intrabasin linkages are less likely to cause major ecological disruptions, as they involve the transfer of water within the same drainage basin, thereby maintaining the natural hydrological cycle. Interbasin transfers can lead to the spread of invasive species, loss of biodiversity, and alteration of river dynamics. The Tehri Dam on the Bhagirathi River, an interbasin transfer, has caused significant ecological issues, such as reduced downstream flows, loss of aquatic biodiversity, and increased siltation.
4. Legal and political feasibility: Intrabasin linkages are often more acceptable to states and stakeholders involved, as they do not involve the transfer of water across state or international boundaries, which can lead to disputes and conflicts. The Cauvery River dispute between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states in India is an example of the complications that can arise from interbasin transfers.

Some successful examples of intrabasin linkages in India include:
(1) The Parambikulam-Aliyar Project (PAP) in Tamil Nadu and Kerala is an intrabasin project that has allowed for the efficient sharing of water resources between the two states for irrigation, drinking water, and power generation purposes.
(2) The Godavari-Krishna link in Andhra Pradesh, also known as the Pattiseema Lift Irrigation Project, involves the transfer of surplus water from the Godavari River to the Krishna River, providing much-needed water for irrigation and drinking purposes in the drought-prone region. This intrabasin project has proved to be economically and ecologically viable, with minimal social impacts.
In conclusion, intrabasin linkages of rivers in India have demonstrated their feasibility in terms of economic, social, and ecological aspects. These linkages have the potential to address water scarcity, improve water management, and minimize conflicts over water resources, while minimizing the negative impacts associated with interbasin transfers.

(b) Provide a reasoned account of emerging conurbations in India and explain with suitable examples the problems associated with it.    (150 words, 15 marks)

A conurbation is a densely populated urban area formed by the merging of multiple cities or towns. In India, rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth have led to the emergence of several conurbations. These conurbations often face numerous challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, environmental degradation, and social inequalities.
1. Mumbai-Pune Conurbation: This conurbation is one of the most significant industrial and financial hubs in India. The Mumbai-Pune Expressway has led to the merging of these two cities, leading to the formation of an extended urban area. The problems associated with this conurbation are inadequate infrastructure, traffic congestion, slums, and environmental degradation.
2. National Capital Region (NCR): The NCR is a significant conurbation that includes Delhi, Gurgaon, Faridabad, Noida, and Ghaziabad. It is a major economic and political center in India. The problems associated with NCR are air and water pollution, inadequate water supply and sanitation, traffic congestion, and high population density.
3. Bangalore-Mysore Conurbation: The Bangalore-Mysore conurbation has emerged as a significant information technology and industrial hub. The growth of industries in this region has led to the merging of these two cities. The problems associated with this conurbation are inadequate infrastructure, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation.
4. Chennai-Coimbatore Conurbation: The Chennai-Coimbatore conurbation has emerged due to the growth of industries such as textiles, automobiles, and information technology in the region. The problems associated with this conurbation are inadequate infrastructure, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation.

The problems associated with conurbations in India can be broadly categorized as follows:
1. Inadequate Infrastructure: Rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to a lack of adequate infrastructure in conurbations like housing, transportation, and basic amenities such as water supply and sanitation.
2. Environmental Degradation: The rapid growth of industries and urbanization in conurbations has led to increased pollution levels, deforestation, and loss of green spaces. This has resulted in air and water pollution, posing significant health risks to the residents.
3. Traffic Congestion: The growth of conurbations has led to an increase in the number of vehicles, subsequently leading to traffic congestion and increased commuting time. This not only impacts the quality of life of residents but also contributes to air pollution.
4. Slums and Unplanned Settlements: Due to rapid urbanization, there is a lack of affordable housing in conurbations, leading to the growth of slums and unplanned settlements. This further exacerbates problems like inadequate sanitation, water supply, and poor living conditions.
5. Social Inequalities: Conurbations often witness a wide gap between the rich and the poor, leading to social inequalities. The lack of affordable housing, inadequate access to quality education and healthcare, and limited employment opportunities contribute to these disparities.

To address these problems, it is crucial to focus on sustainable urban planning, the development of infrastructure, and the provision of affordable housing. Additionally, promoting public transportation, implementing stricter environmental regulations, and promoting inclusive growth can help tackle the challenges associated with conurbations in India.

(c) Explain the relevance of green tourism for the sustainable development of the mountain environment in India.      (150 words, 15 marks).

Green tourism, also known as eco-tourism or sustainable tourism, refers to a form of responsible travel that aims to conserve the environment, promote cultural heritage, and benefit local communities. It emphasizes low-impact, environmentally friendly practices, and sustainable development in the tourism industry. The mountain environment in India, with its unique ecological, cultural, and socio-economic features, has immense potential for green tourism.
The relevance of green tourism for the sustainable development of the mountain environment in India can be explained through the following points:
1. Conservation of biodiversity: The mountain environment in India hosts a rich diversity of flora and fauna, including many endemic and endangered species. Green tourism encourages the conservation of these fragile ecosystems by promoting responsible travel practices, such as minimizing waste, avoiding plastic usage, and following designated trails. For example, eco-tourism initiatives in the Himalayan region focus on preserving the unique biodiversity of the area, including the rare snow leopard and red panda.
2. Preservation of cultural heritage: The mountain regions of India are home to numerous indigenous communities with distinct cultural practices, languages, and traditions. Green tourism can help preserve these cultural identities by encouraging visitors to learn about and respect local customs, thereby fostering a sense of pride and ownership among local communities. For instance, community-based tourism initiatives in Ladakh and Sikkim involve tourists staying in traditional homestays and engaging with local people to understand their way of life.
3. Economic opportunities for local communities: Green tourism can provide alternative sources of income for marginalized mountain communities who often rely on subsistence agriculture or seasonal labor migration. By promoting local handicrafts, organic farming, and community-based tourism initiatives, green tourism can generate employment opportunities and help reduce poverty. An example of this is the successful community-based eco-tourism project in the Great Himalayan National Park, Himachal Pradesh, which provides livelihoods for local villagers.
4. Climate change mitigation: The mountain environment is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as glacial retreat, flash floods, and changing precipitation patterns. Green tourism can contribute to climate change mitigation efforts by promoting low-carbon travel options, responsible waste management, and sustainable use of natural resources. For example, the promotion of trekking and cycling tourism in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve encourages low-emission modes of transport and reduces the overall carbon footprint of tourism activities.
5. Infrastructure development: Green tourism can also contribute to the development of sustainable infrastructure in mountain regions, such as eco-lodges, solar-powered lighting, and waste management systems. This not only benefits the environment but also improves the quality of life for local communities. For instance, the construction of eco-friendly infrastructure in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand has improved sanitation and waste management practices in the area.
6. Environmental awareness and education: Green tourism can play a crucial role in raising awareness about the importance of conserving the mountain environment among tourists and local communities. By incorporating environmental education into tourism activities and promoting responsible travel practices, green tourism can foster a greater appreciation for the natural and cultural heritage of mountain regions. For example, the eco-tourism programs in the Western Ghats help educate tourists about the region's unique biodiversity and the need for conservation efforts.

In conclusion, green tourism holds immense potential for the sustainable development of the mountain environment in India. By promoting environmentally responsible practices, preserving cultural heritage, and providing economic benefits to local communities, green tourism can play a significant role in conserving India's fragile mountain ecosystems and ensuring their sustainable development.

Q.7.(a) Analyse the role of interstate migration in regional disparity in India.     (250 works, 20 marks)

Interstate migration in India has played a significant role in creating and perpetuating regional disparities. Regional disparity refers to the differences in socio-economic indicators, such as income, education, health, and infrastructure, among different regions within a country. Interstate migration contributes to this disparity in various ways, which can be analyzed through the following points:
1. Skilled and Unskilled Labor Movement: The movement of skilled labor from less developed regions to more developed regions is a common occurrence in India. This migration leads to a concentration of skilled labor in certain regions, like the metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore, resulting in a higher level of economic growth and development in these areas. On the other hand, the less developed regions face a shortage of skilled labor, which hampers their overall development. Similarly, the migration of unskilled labor from rural to urban areas often leads to overcrowding and pressure on urban infrastructure, while contributing to the underdevelopment of rural regions.
Example: The migration of IT professionals from different states to Bangalore has contributed to the growth of the city as the IT hub of India, while causing a brain drain in their home states.
2. Remittances: Migrants usually send a significant portion of their earnings back to their families in their home states. Although these remittances can contribute positively to the local economy, they can also lead to increased income inequalities between the migrants' families and the non-migrant population. In some cases, remittances may be spent on unproductive assets, like buying land or constructing houses, rather than investing in productive sectors, such as agriculture or small-scale industries, which could contribute to regional development.
Example: The remittances sent by migrants from Kerala working in the Gulf countries have led to a substantial increase in the per capita income of the state but have also resulted in increased income inequalities.
3. Social and Cultural Impact: Interstate migration can lead to the diffusion of different social and cultural practices, which may have both positive and negative consequences. The positive aspect of this diffusion is that it can lead to greater social integration and understanding among different communities. However, it can also cause social tensions and conflicts, as migrants might face discrimination or hostility from the local population. This may further contribute to regional disparities as it could hinder the assimilation of migrants into the local communities and limit their access to essential services and opportunities.
Example: The migration of people from North-East India to cities like Delhi and Bangalore has led to greater cultural exchange but has also resulted in instances of discrimination and violence against them.
4. Pressure on Resources and Infrastructure: The migration of people from less developed to more developed regions puts pressure on the existing resources and infrastructure in the destination areas. This pressure can lead to inadequate housing, water supply, sanitation, and other basic amenities, which can further widen the regional disparities between the developed and less developed regions.
Example: The rapid influx of migrants to Mumbai has resulted in the growth of slums, where people live in substandard conditions with limited access to basic amenities.
5. Regional Politics and Development Policies: Interstate migration can also influence regional politics and development policies. The political leaders and policymakers in the destination regions might prioritize the needs of the local population over the migrants, leading to biased development policies. This can further exacerbate regional disparities as the migrants may not receive adequate support and opportunities to improve their socio-economic status.
Example: The Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS), a regional political party in Maharashtra, has been known for its anti-migrant stance and has often blamed migrants from other states for the problems faced by the local population.

In conclusion, interstate migration in India has played a significant role in shaping regional disparities. While it has led to the growth and development of certain regions, it has also contributed to the underdevelopment of others. Addressing these disparities requires a comprehensive approach that includes inclusive development policies, better distribution of resources, and the promotion of balanced regional growth.

(b) Give a reasoned account of the high level of pollution in North Indian cities as compared to south Indian cities. (150 words, 15 marks)

The high level of pollution in North Indian cities as compared to South Indian cities can be attributed to a combination of geographical, demographic, and socio-economic factors. Here are some of the key factors that contribute to the higher pollution levels in North Indian cities:

1. Climatic and Geographical Factors:
(a) Temperature Inversion: During winters, North Indian cities experience a weather phenomenon known as 'temperature inversion,' where a layer of warm air traps pollutants close to the ground, leading to reduced dispersion of pollutants. This phenomenon is more pronounced in North India due to its landlocked geography and distance from the sea.
(b) Wind Patterns: The prevailing wind patterns in India are such that they carry pollutants from North Indian cities towards the Indo-Gangetic plain, which is a densely populated region. This results in higher accumulation and concentration of pollutants in this region. South Indian cities, on the other hand, benefit from their proximity to the sea, which helps disperse pollutants more effectively.

2. Demographic Factors:

(a) Population Density: North Indian cities have a higher population density as compared to South Indian cities. Higher population density leads to increased vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, and waste generation, which in turn contribute to higher pollution levels.
(b) Urbanization: Rapid urbanization in North Indian cities has led to the development of urban heat islands, where increased concrete surfaces and lack of green cover lead to higher temperatures, which in turn exacerbate air pollution.

3. Economic and Industrial Factors:

(a) Industrial Base: North Indian cities have a higher concentration of industries, particularly in the National Capital Region (NCR), which includes cities such as Delhi, Faridabad, Ghaziabad, and Gurgaon. These industries are major sources of air and water pollution.
(b) Vehicular Emissions: The high population density in North Indian cities has also led to a higher number of vehicles on the road, which contributes significantly to air pollution. Poor public transportation infrastructure further exacerbates the problem, as people rely more on private vehicles for commuting.

4. Agricultural Factors:
(a) Crop Burning: A significant contributor to air pollution in North Indian cities, particularly during the winter months, is crop burning. Farmers in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh burn crop residue after harvest to clear their fields quickly for the next crop. This practice releases large amounts of smoke and particulate matter into the atmosphere, which gets carried to the cities by the wind.
(b) Fertilizer Use: Intensive agriculture practices in North India rely heavily on chemical fertilizers, which lead to soil degradation and groundwater pollution. The excessive use of fertilizers also contributes to air pollution, as they release nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
(c) Pesticide Use: Pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture also contribute to air pollution, as they release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. These compounds can react with other pollutants to form ground-level ozone, a major component of smog.
(d) Livestock Farming: Livestock farming is a significant contributor to air and water pollution in North India, as it generates large amounts of animal waste, which release methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The improper disposal of this waste can also contaminate groundwater sources.

5. Governance and Policy Factors:
(a) Lack of Strict Pollution Control Measures: North Indian cities have been relatively slow in implementing strict pollution control measures, such as the closure of polluting industries, adoption of cleaner fuel technologies, and promotion of public transportation. This has resulted in higher pollution levels in these cities as compared to their South Indian counterparts, where more proactive measures have been taken to curb pollution.

In conclusion, the high level of pollution in North Indian cities can be attributed to a combination of geographical, demographic, economic, agricultural, and governance factors. Addressing these issues through a comprehensive and holistic approach is required to bring down pollution levels in these cities and improve the overall quality of life for their residents.

(c) Analyze the incentive-oriented programs for removing regional imbalance in the socio-economic development of India.     (150 words, 15 marks)

The incentive-oriented programs in India aim to remove regional imbalances in socio-economic development by offering incentives and benefits to industries and businesses in underdeveloped regions. These programs aim to attract investments, create employment opportunities, and drive economic growth in the less developed regions.
Some of the key incentive-oriented programs in India include:
1. Industrial Policy Resolution 1956: This policy was introduced to encourage the establishment of industries in backward areas of the country. It provided various incentives like concessional land, tax holidays, lower power tariffs, and financial assistance to industries for setting up their operations in these regions.
2. Freight Subsidy Scheme (FSS) 1960: The FSS aimed to provide a level playing field for industries located in remote areas by providing subsidies for transportation of raw materials and finished goods. This helped industries in these areas to compete with those in more developed regions.
3. Special Package Scheme (SPS) 1965: The SPS was introduced to address the severe drought situation in several parts of the country. It provided a package of incentives, including concessional loans, tax concessions, and subsidies to industries in these regions to help them recover from the effects of the drought.
4. Special Area Development Programme (SADP) 1970: The SADP aimed to accelerate socio-economic development in the most backward areas by providing financial assistance for infrastructure development, agriculture, and allied sectors. The program focused on improving the quality of life and economic development in these areas.
5. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) 1978: The IRDP aimed to provide self-employment opportunities for the rural poor by offering financial assistance in the form of loans and subsidies. This program helped in improving the income levels and living standards of the rural population.
6. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) 2000: The SEZ policy was introduced to promote exports and attract foreign investments by providing a range of incentives like tax holidays, duty-free imports, and simplified regulatory procedures. Many SEZs have been set up in underdeveloped regions to boost economic development and employment opportunities.
7. Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) 2007: The BRGF was introduced to bridge the development gap between the backward and more developed regions by providing financial assistance for infrastructure development, capacity building, and skill development. The fund aims to improve the socio-economic conditions in these regions.
8. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) 2000: This scheme aims to provide all-weather road connectivity to unconnected rural habitations by constructing and upgrading rural roads. Improved road connectivity has a significant impact on the socio-economic development of rural areas.
9. National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) 2011: The NRLM aims to enhance livelihood opportunities for the rural poor by promoting self-employment and wage employment opportunities. The program focuses on skill development, financial inclusion, and social mobilization to improve the socio-economic conditions of the rural population.

In conclusion, the incentive-oriented programs have played a significant role in addressing regional imbalances in socio-economic development in India. These programs have attracted investments, created employment opportunities, and improved infrastructure in underdeveloped regions. However, there is still a need to further strengthen these programs and ensure effective implementation to achieve the desired results in reducing regional disparities in the country.

Q.8. (a) With special reference to India examine the changes in the nature and patterns of international trade. Mention the major influencing factors.      (250 words, 20 marks)

In the past few decades, India has experienced significant changes in the nature and patterns of its international trade. These changes have been influenced by various factors such as economic liberalization, globalization, and technological advancements. The following points highlight the major changes and the influencing factors:
1. Shift from Import Substitution to Export Promotion: Prior to the economic liberalization of the 1990s, India followed an import substitution policy, where the focus was on reducing imports by promoting domestic industries. However, post-liberalization, the focus has shifted to export promotion, with the government implementing various policies and incentives to boost exports. This change was influenced by the need to integrate with the global economy and to take advantage of the comparative advantage in various sectors.
2. Diversification of Export Products: India's export basket has diversified significantly over the years. Earlier, the primary focus was on agricultural and traditional products such as tea, coffee, spices, and jute. However, the export basket has expanded to include sectors such as textiles and garments, engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, IT and IT-enabled services, and automotive components. This diversification has been influenced by the country's efforts to tap into new markets and leverage its strengths in various sectors.
3. Diversification of Export Destinations: India's export destinations have also diversified over time. While the traditional export markets were mainly the developed countries of the West, the focus has shifted to include emerging markets such as the ASEAN countries, the Middle East, and Africa. This change has been influenced by the growing economic importance of these regions and the need to reduce the dependency on the developed countries.
4. Increasing Share of Services in Exports: The service sector has emerged as a significant driver of India's export growth, particularly in IT and IT-enabled services. In the past, the export of services was limited to areas such as tourism and transportation. However, the share of services in total exports has increased significantly, with sectors such as software services, business process outsourcing, and knowledge process outsourcing emerging as major contributors. This change has been influenced by the increasing importance of the service sector in the global economy and India's competitive advantage in this area due to its skilled workforce and cost advantage.
5. Growth of Foreign Trade and Investments: India's foreign trade and investments have grown significantly in the past few decades. The liberalization of the economy, opening up to foreign investments, and the ease of doing business have all contributed to this growth. In addition, India has entered into various bilateral and regional trade agreements to boost trade and investment ties with other countries.
6. Influence of Technology: Technological advancements have played a significant role in shaping the nature and patterns of India's international trade. The growth of e-commerce, digital payments, and the internet has made it easier for Indian businesses to access global markets and for foreign businesses to enter the Indian market. Moreover, technology has also facilitated the growth of export sectors such as IT and IT-enabled services, which have helped India carve a niche in the global market.

In conclusion, India's international trade has undergone significant changes in the past few decades, with a shift in focus from import substitution to export promotion, diversification of export products and destinations, and an increasing share of services in total exports. These changes have been influenced by factors such as economic liberalization, globalization, and technological advancements. As India continues to integrate with the global economy, its international trade is expected to evolve further, presenting both opportunities and challenges for the country.

(b) Describe the altitudinal and spatial geo-environmental hazards in the Himalayas.     (150 words, 15 marks).

The Himalayas, stretching over 2,500 km from east to west, are a prominent mountain range in South Asia. They act as a natural barrier and influence the climate, drainage, and vegetation patterns in the region. However, the Himalayas are also prone to various altitudinal and spatial geo-environmental hazards due to their complex tectonic setting, steep topography, and dynamic geomorphic processes. Some of the major hazards are discussed below:
1. Earthquakes: The Himalayas are one of the most seismically active regions globally due to the ongoing collision between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate. This collision leads to the formation of thrust faults, where the Indian plate is forced beneath the Eurasian plate, resulting in earthquakes. For example, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake (M 7.6) and the 2015 Gorkha earthquake (M 7.8) caused massive destruction and loss of life in Pakistan and Nepal, respectively.
2. Landslides: The steep slopes, fragile geological formations, high rainfall, and intense human activities make the Himalayas highly susceptible to landslides. The deforestation and construction of roads, dams, and other structures have further exacerbated the risks. For instance, the 2013 Kedarnath landslide in India resulted in the death of thousands of people and damaged infrastructure along the Alaknanda and Mandakini river valleys.
3. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs): The Himalayas have numerous glacial lakes formed by the melting of glaciers due to climate change. These lakes are often dammed by unstable moraine material, and any disturbance (e.g., an earthquake, landslide, or avalanches) can cause the dam to breach, leading to catastrophic floods downstream. The 1985 Dig Tsho GLOF in Nepal and the 2013 Chorabari lake outburst in India are examples of such hazards.
4. Avalanches and snowstorms: The high-altitude regions of the Himalayas experience heavy snowfall and avalanches, posing risks to mountaineers, trekkers, and local inhabitants. In 2014, a massive avalanche on Mount Everest killed 16 Sherpa guides, while the 2015 Nepal blizzard resulted in the death of 43 trekkers and locals.
5. Flash floods: The Himalayan region is prone to flash floods due to intense rainfall events and the rapid melting of snow and ice during the monsoon season. These floods can cause widespread damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and human settlements. An example is the 2010 flash floods in Ladakh, which caused the death of over 250 people and massive destruction of property.
6. Erosion and sedimentation: The Himalayas are characterized by high rates of erosion and sedimentation due to their steep slopes, fragile geology, and dynamic fluvial processes. This can lead to the formation of gullies, landslides, and river bank erosion, affecting agricultural lands, infrastructure, and human settlements. The Brahmaputra river, for example, has caused severe erosion problems in Assam, India.

In conclusion, the altitudinal and spatial geo-environmental hazards in the Himalayas pose significant challenges for sustainable development and disaster risk management. Effective planning, monitoring, and mitigation measures are required to minimize the impacts of these hazards on the environment and human population.

(c) "India is emerging as the global power in relation to Indian ocean realms." Elaborate.     (150 words, 15 marks)

India is emerging as a global power in relation to the Indian Ocean realms due to its strategic geographical location, growing economic prowess, and increasing military capabilities. This growth in power is reflected in various aspects, as discussed below:
1. Strategic geographical location: India's peninsular region extends into the Indian Ocean, providing a significant advantage in terms of accessibility and control over major sea routes. This enables India to influence trade and security in the region. The Indian Ocean is a vital shipping route for the export of oil and gas from the Middle East, and India's location allows it to monitor and safeguard these routes effectively.
2. Growing economic prowess: India is the world's sixth-largest economy, and its growth has been fuelled by its vast population, skilled workforce, and expanding industrial sector. India's increasing economic power enables it to invest in developing infrastructure and capabilities in the Indian Ocean region, such as ports, maritime surveillance systems, and naval bases.
For example, India has invested in the development of the Chabahar Port in Iran, which provides it with a strategic foothold in the region and improves its connectivity to Central Asia and Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan. India has also been providing assistance to Indian Ocean island countries like the Maldives, Seychelles, and Mauritius in developing their maritime infrastructure.
3. Increasing military capabilities: India has been steadily modernizing its armed forces, particularly its naval capabilities, to protect its interests in the Indian Ocean region. The Indian Navy has been acquiring advanced warships, submarines, and aircraft to enhance its power projection capabilities.
For example, India has commissioned the INS Vikramaditya aircraft carrier and has started the construction of the indigenous aircraft carrier INS Vikrant. Additionally, India has acquired advanced submarines like the Scorpene-class and nuclear-powered submarines like INS Arihant, which enhance its naval capabilities significantly.
4. Diplomatic initiatives: India has been actively engaging with other Indian Ocean countries through various regional forums and bilateral agreements. The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) are two such platforms where India plays a significant role.
India has also been engaging with major powers like the United States, Japan, and Australia through initiatives like the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) and the Malabar naval exercises, which aim to promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
5. Maritime security cooperation: India has been at the forefront of providing maritime security assistance to Indian Ocean countries. The Indian Navy has been conducting anti-piracy patrols in the Gulf of Aden since 2008, ensuring the safety of commercial shipping in the region.
India has also signed a number of maritime security agreements with Indian Ocean countries, such as the White Shipping Agreements, which involve the exchange of information on the movement of commercial vessels to enhance maritime domain awareness and promote regional security.

In conclusion, India's strategic geographical location, growing economic prowess, increasing military capabilities, diplomatic initiatives, and maritime security cooperation have significantly contributed to its emergence as a global power in relation to the Indian Ocean realms. This has enabled India to play a critical role in shaping the regional security architecture and promoting peace, stability, and prosperity in the Indian Ocean region.