UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Public Administration Paper 2 (Section- A) | Public Administration Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.1. Answer the following Questions in about 150 words each: (10 x 5=50)

The Mughal administrative system, which emerged during the medieval period in India, can be characterized as a centralized despotism due to its highly centralized and autocratic nature. This system was marked by the concentration of power and authority in the hands of the emperor, who was considered the supreme authority in all administrative, military, and financial matters. The following points can illustrate the centralized despotic nature of the Mughal administrative system:

1. Absolute power of the emperor: The Mughal emperor wielded immense power and authority, and all decisions made by him were considered final. He was the chief executive, chief legislator, and chief judge of the empire. There was no concept of separation of powers, and the emperor was the main source of law and justice in the empire.

2. Centralized bureaucracy: The Mughal bureaucracy was highly centralized, with the emperor having direct control over its functioning. All appointments, promotions, and dismissals of high-ranking officials were made by the emperor himself. The nobles and officers were directly accountable to the emperor, and their loyalty was ensured through a system of rewards and punishments.

3. Revenue administration: The Mughal revenue administration was also highly centralized, with the emperor having direct control over the collection and distribution of revenue. The land revenue was the main source of income for the empire, and it was collected by the imperial officers, who were directly responsible to the emperor. The revenue collected was used to maintain the imperial court, the army, and the civil administration.

4. Military administration: The emperor was the supreme commander of the Mughal army and had direct control over its organization and deployment. The nobles and officers were required to provide military service and maintain a specified number of troops for the empire. The loyalty of the military was ensured through a system of rewards and punishments, which was directly controlled by the emperor.
However, it is essential to note that the Mughal administrative system was not entirely despotic. There were certain elements of decentralization, such as the presence of autonomous provinces and local self-governance at the village level. Additionally, the emperor often sought the advice of his council of ministers and other experienced officials in matters of administration, thereby exhibiting some degree of consultation and delegation of authority.

In conclusion, the Mughal administrative system can be characterized as centralized despotism due to its highly centralized and autocratic nature. However, it also included some elements of decentralization and consultation, which contributed to the efficiency and stability of the empire.

(b) “The office of the District Collector admirably survived the changing times from colonialism to the present times”. Comment.    (10 Marks)

The office of the District Collector has been a significant institution in the Indian administrative system since the colonial era. It has evolved over the years, adapting to the changing socio-political landscape and addressing the needs of the people. The District Collector has played a pivotal role in the functioning of the district administration, ensuring the effective delivery of public services, maintaining law and order, and overseeing the implementation of developmental programs.

(i) During the colonial period, the District Collector was primarily responsible for revenue collection and maintaining law and order. However, with the advent of independence and the adoption of a democratic system of governance, the role of the District Collector has undergone a significant transformation. Today, the District Collector is entrusted with a wide range of responsibilities, including the implementation of various developmental schemes, disaster management, and ensuring social justice and equity.

(ii) Over the years, the office of the District Collector has demonstrated its resilience and adaptability to the changing times. For example, in the post-independence period, the focus shifted from revenue collection to development and welfare. The District Collector played a crucial role in implementing land reforms, ensuring food security, and promoting rural development.

(iii) The District Collector has also played a key role in maintaining law and order and ensuring free and fair elections. This has been particularly evident during times of social and political unrest, where the District Collector has acted as a coordinator and mediator between various stakeholders.

(iv) In recent years, the office of the District Collector has embraced technology and innovation to improve public service delivery. Initiatives such as e-governance, digital land records, and online grievance redressal systems have made the district administration more accessible and responsive to the needs of the citizens.
However, the office of the District Collector faces several challenges in the contemporary context. The rapid pace of urbanization and the increasing complexity of governance require a more specialized and professional approach to administration. The District Collector must strike a balance between being a generalist administrator and acquiring the necessary expertise in specific domains.

In conclusion, the office of the District Collector has admirably survived the changing times from colonialism to the present times. It has demonstrated its resilience and adaptability to the evolving socio-political landscape and continues to play a crucial role in the Indian administrative system. However, to remain relevant and effective in the future, the office of the District Collector must continue to evolve and adapt to the emerging challenges and opportunities.

(c) “The smooth transaction of business in Ministries and Departments depends on the role played by Cabinet Secretariat”. Discuss.    (10 Marks)

The Cabinet Secretariat is an important institution in the central government, playing a crucial role in ensuring the smooth functioning of various ministries and departments. It is responsible for coordinating the activities of different departments, facilitating communication between ministries, and providing secretarial assistance to the Cabinet and its committees. The statement highlights the significance of the Cabinet Secretariat in ensuring the smooth transaction of business in Ministries and Departments.

The role of the Cabinet Secretariat can be discussed under the following points:

1. Coordination: The Cabinet Secretariat ensures that the decisions of the Cabinet are implemented by the concerned ministries and departments. It also plays a critical role in coordinating policies and programs across ministries, ensuring that they work in tandem towards achieving the government's overall objectives.

2. Policy formulation: The Secretariat assists the Cabinet in the formulation of policies by providing relevant information, analysis, and advice. It helps in preparing the agenda for Cabinet meetings, ensuring that all relevant issues are discussed and deliberated upon by the top decision-makers in the government.

3. Communication: The Cabinet Secretariat facilitates communication between the various ministries and departments, ensuring that there is a smooth flow of information and that any bottlenecks are addressed promptly. This is particularly important in a complex and diverse country like India, where various ministries and departments have to work together to address myriad challenges.

4. Secretarial assistance: The Cabinet Secretariat provides secretarial assistance to the Cabinet and its committees, ensuring that their decisions are recorded accurately and communicated to the concerned ministries and departments for implementation. This includes preparing minutes of the meetings, circulating papers and documents, and ensuring that follow-up action is taken on the decisions of the Cabinet.

5. Crisis management: The Cabinet Secretariat plays a crucial role in crisis management, as it is responsible for coordinating the government's response to emergencies and disasters. This includes mobilizing resources, coordinating with other agencies, and ensuring that timely and effective decisions are taken to address the crisis.

In conclusion, the Cabinet Secretariat is an essential pillar of the central government, playing a pivotal role in ensuring the smooth transaction of business in Ministries and Departments. Its functions are critical to the overall functioning of the government, and its effectiveness has a direct bearing on the government's ability to deliver on its promises and meet the expectations of the people.

(d) “The Government of India Act, 1935 is the most important source of Indian constitution”. Identify its features.    (10 Marks)

The Government of India Act, 1935, was a significant milestone in the constitutional development of India. It laid the foundation for the present Constitution of India and provided several features that were later incorporated in the Indian Constitution. Here are the key features of the Government of India Act, 1935:

1. Federal Structure: The Act envisaged a federal structure with a central government and provincial governments. It provided for the establishment of a Federal Court, which later became the Supreme Court of India.

2. Distribution of Powers: The Act divided the powers between the central and provincial governments into three lists - Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent list. This distribution of powers served as the basis of the present Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution.

3. Dyarchy at the Centre: The Act introduced the concept of dyarchy at the Centre, where certain subjects were to be administered by ministers responsible to the Central Legislature, while others were to be administered by the Governor-General and his executive council.

4. Provincial Autonomy: The Act granted significant autonomy to the provinces by abolishing the system of dyarchy introduced by the Government of India Act, 1919, and introducing responsible government in the provinces. The provincial governments were given exclusive authority over subjects in the Provincial list.

5. Bicameral Legislature: The Act provided for a bicameral legislature consisting of the Federal Assembly (lower house) and the Council of State (upper house). This feature was later adopted in the Indian Constitution with the establishment of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

6. Extension of Franchise: The Act extended the right to vote to a larger section of the population, based on property and tax qualifications. This marked a significant step towards universal adult franchise, which was later adopted in the Indian Constitution.

7. Protection of Minorities: The Act provided for separate electorates and reserved seats for minorities to safeguard their interests. This principle of minority protection was carried forward in the Indian Constitution through provisions like Article 30 and reservation policies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

8. Advisory Role of the Council of India: The Act reduced the role of the Council of India, which was an advisory body to the Secretary of State for India, and reconstituted it as a purely advisory body with no executive functions.

In conclusion, the Government of India Act, 1935, laid the groundwork for India's constitutional development by introducing federalism, provincial autonomy, bicameralism, and protection of minorities. Although the Act was criticized for not granting complete independence and maintaining British control over certain subjects, it served as a valuable source for the framers of the Indian Constitution in shaping India's political and administrative structure.

(e) “The Chief Secretary is the chief communication link between the state and central government”. Explain.    (10 Marks)

The Chief Secretary is the highest-ranking officer in the administrative hierarchy of a state in India. He/she serves as the chief communication link between the state and central government, ensuring effective coordination and cooperation between the two levels of governance in the country. This key position is responsible for facilitating the smooth functioning of the state government machinery and implementing the policies and directives of the state government in line with the central government's priorities.

The role of the Chief Secretary as the chief communication link between the state and central government can be understood through the following points:

1. Policy formulation and coordination: The Chief Secretary plays a crucial role in formulating policies and ensuring their alignment with the central government's guidelines and priorities. He/she coordinates with various departments at the state level and communicates with the central government to ensure that the state's policy framework is in harmony with the national agenda.

2. Administrative support and supervision: The Chief Secretary is responsible for supervising the functioning of various state government departments and agencies. He/she provides necessary administrative support to facilitate the implementation of central government schemes and programs at the state level. In case of any issues or challenges, the Chief Secretary acts as the primary point of contact between the state and central government authorities, ensuring proper redressal and resolution of problems.

3. Representation of state interests: The Chief Secretary represents the interests of the state government in meetings and deliberations at the central level. He/she participates in conferences, committees, and consultations involving the central government, where key decisions impacting the states are taken. By effectively representing the state's interests, the Chief Secretary ensures that the state's concerns and priorities are duly considered by the central government.

4. Crisis management and emergency response: In times of crisis, such as natural disasters, the Chief Secretary plays a pivotal role in coordinating the state's response and liaising with the central government for necessary support and assistance. He/she ensures that the state government's actions are in line with the central government's guidelines and that adequate resources are mobilized for effective disaster management and relief operations.

5. Information sharing and communication: The Chief Secretary plays a vital role in sharing information and maintaining open channels of communication between the state and central government. He/she is responsible for keeping the central government informed about the developments in the state and seeking advice or guidance on important matters, as and when required.

In conclusion, the Chief Secretary, as the chief communication link between the state and central government, plays a pivotal role in ensuring effective governance and coordination between the two levels of administration in India. By facilitating policy formulation, administrative support, representation of state interests, crisis management, and information sharing, the Chief Secretary ensures that the state government's functioning aligns with the central government's priorities and guidelines.

Q.2.(a) “The Indian federal structure is largely symmetric albeit with some asymmetric features”. Examine the status of States and Union Territories through the principle of weighted and differentiated equality in India.    (20 Marks)

The Indian federal structure is a unique blend of symmetric and asymmetric features, providing a framework for the coexistence of States and Union Territories within a single political system. This arrangement is based on the principle of weighted and differentiated equality, which reflects the diversity and complexity of the Indian political landscape. In this context, weighted equality refers to the distribution of powers, functions, and resources among the different units of the federation according to their size, population, and developmental requirements. On the other hand, differentiated equality implies the recognition of certain special provisions and privileges for some units to address their specific needs and circumstances.

(i) States in India are the primary units of the federation and enjoy substantial autonomy and powers under the Constitution. They have their own legislative assemblies, executive councils, and judiciary, which operate independently within their respective jurisdictions. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution divides the subjects of legislation into three lists - Union, State, and Concurrent. While the Union List contains subjects on which only the central government can legislate, the State List comprises subjects on which the state governments have exclusive authority. The Concurrent List includes subjects on which both the central and state governments can legislate, with the central legislation prevailing in case of a conflict.

(ii) In terms of weighted equality, the distribution of financial resources between the center and the states is determined by the Finance Commission, a constitutional body that recommends the sharing of tax revenues, grants-in-aid, and other financial transfers. The Finance Commission takes into account factors such as population, area, forest cover, and fiscal capacity of the states while making its recommendations. Thus, the principle of weighted equality ensures that the states receive financial resources in accordance with their developmental needs and fiscal capacity.

(iii) However, the Indian federal structure also has certain asymmetric features that provide for differentiated equality. This is exemplified by the special provisions for some states under Articles 370 and 371 of the Constitution. For instance, Jammu and Kashmir enjoyed a special status under Article 370, which granted it greater autonomy and allowed it to have its own constitution, flag, and control over internal administration until its abrogation in 2019. Similarly, Article 371 provides special provisions for several states in the Northeast, such as Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh, to safeguard their tribal cultures, customs, and administrative practices. These provisions recognize the unique historical, cultural, and political contexts of these states and seek to address their specific concerns within the framework of the Indian federation.

(iv) Union Territories, on the other hand, are administrative units that are directly governed by the central government through the President and his appointed administrators. They do not have the same powers and autonomy as the states, and their legislative and executive functions are largely determined by the central government. However, some Union Territories, such as Delhi and Puducherry, have been granted partial statehood with their own elected legislative assemblies and governments, reflecting the principle of differentiated equality.

In conclusion, the Indian federal structure embodies the principle of weighted and differentiated equality through its complex arrangement of States and Union Territories. While the states enjoy substantial autonomy and powers under the Constitution, the special provisions for some regions and the governance of Union Territories highlight the need to accommodate the diverse political, cultural, and historical contexts within the country. This delicate balance ensures that the Indian federal system remains responsive, adaptable, and inclusive.

(b) The Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan is a progressive policy. Analyse.    (20 Marks)

The Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan or the Self-Reliant India Campaign is a progressive policy launched by the Government of India in May 2020. The primary objective of this policy is to make India self-reliant and reduce its dependence on imports, thereby promoting domestic industries and boosting the economy. This policy is progressive for several reasons, as discussed below.

1. Economic Growth: The Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan aims at boosting economic growth by promoting domestic industries and reducing dependence on imports. This will help in generating employment opportunities, increasing economic activities, and enhancing the overall GDP of the country.

2. Infrastructure Development: The policy focuses on improving the country's infrastructure to facilitate the growth of industries and businesses. This will not only create jobs but also improve the overall quality of life for citizens. Improved infrastructure will lead to better connectivity and accessibility, enhancing the prospects of economic growth.

3. Strengthening of MSMEs: The Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan places particular emphasis on supporting and strengthening Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). This sector is crucial for the Indian economy, as it contributes significantly to manufacturing output, employment generation, and exports. By providing financial and policy support, the government aims to help MSMEs become globally competitive and contribute to India's growth story.

4. Encouraging Local Production: The policy encourages the production of goods and services within the country to reduce import dependence. This will help in generating employment opportunities and promote the growth of local industries, benefiting the overall economy.

5. Vocal for Local: The policy also emphasizes on the promotion of locally produced goods and services, giving a platform to local industries and artisans to showcase their products. This will not only help in preserving and promoting India's cultural heritage but also encourage the growth of local industries.

6. Import Substitution: The Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan aims at reducing imports by promoting domestic production. This will help in saving valuable foreign exchange, which can be used for other essential purposes like infrastructure development and social welfare programs.

7. Global Competitiveness: The policy aims to enhance India's global competitiveness by promoting domestic industries and reducing dependence on imports. This will also help in improving the country's trade balance and increasing foreign exchange reserves.

8. Employment Generation: By promoting domestic industries and reducing import dependence, the Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan aims to create more employment opportunities for the youth. This will help in addressing the issue of unemployment and underemployment in the country.

9. Social and Economic Inclusion: The policy emphasizes on providing equal opportunities to all sections of society, including women, Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). This will help in achieving social and economic inclusion, leading to a more equitable society.

10. Sustainable Development: The Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan focuses on promoting sustainable development by encouraging the use of renewable energy sources, promoting resource-efficient technologies, and adopting environmentally friendly practices.

In conclusion, the Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan is a progressive policy that aims to create a self-reliant and economically strong India. By promoting domestic industries, reducing import dependence, and strengthening the MSME sector, the policy has the potential to generate employment opportunities, foster economic growth, and ensure social and economic inclusion for all citizens.

(c) ‘Indicative Planning, is a middle path of planning and market mechanism to ensure coordination between public and private activities.’ Explain.    (10 Marks)

Indicative Planning is an economic planning model that aims to strike a balance between centralized planning and a free market mechanism. It is a strategy where the government sets broad economic goals and provides guidelines for the private sector to achieve these objectives. The government does not directly control or own the means of production but rather relies on market forces to allocate resources efficiently.
The primary purpose of indicative planning is to ensure coordination and harmony between public and private activities in the economy. This is achieved by setting up a system where both the government and the private sector can work together to achieve common economic objectives. Indicative planning is used in various countries, such as France, Japan, and South Korea, to varying degrees of success. Some of the aspects of indicative planning are:

1. Setting broad economic objectives: The government sets macroeconomic goals, such as GDP growth, inflation control, and employment generation. These goals provide a direction for the private sector to work towards and help in aligning their individual goals with national priorities.

2. Providing policy guidelines: The government issues policy guidelines to help the private sector achieve the desired economic objectives. These guidelines might include fiscal incentives, tax breaks, subsidies, or other support measures for specific industries or sectors.

3. Encouraging private investment: Indicative planning encourages private investment in priority sectors, thereby helping to boost economic growth and employment generation. The government may provide incentives or support measures to attract private investment in these sectors.

4. Monitoring and evaluation: The government monitors the progress of the private sector in achieving the set economic goals and evaluates their performance. Based on this evaluation, the government may revise its policies and guidelines to ensure better alignment with national priorities.

Examples of indicative planning in practice:

1. France: The French government implemented indicative planning in the post-World War II era to rebuild its economy. The government set up a series of five-year plans that outlined economic goals and provided policy guidelines for the private sector. This approach helped France achieve rapid economic growth and industrialization.

2. Japan: Japan adopted a system of indicative planning after World War II to rebuild its economy. The government set broad economic goals and provided policy guidance to the private sector, which led to the rapid development of Japan's industries and its transformation into an economic powerhouse.

3. South Korea: South Korea also followed a system of indicative planning to transform its economy from an agrarian to an industrial one. The government set up five-year plans, provided policy guidelines, and encouraged private investment in priority sectors like steel, chemicals, and electronics. This approach helped South Korea achieve rapid economic growth and industrialization.

In conclusion, indicative planning is a middle path between centralized planning and market mechanism, ensuring coordination between public and private activities. By setting broad economic goals, providing policy guidelines, and encouraging private investment, indicative planning helps countries achieve rapid economic growth and development while maintaining the flexibility and efficiency of a market-based system.

Q.3.(a) “The New Economic Reforms during the past three decades have not only reduced the scope of industrial licensing and areas reserved exclusively for Public Sector but also infringed the autonomy of existing public sector undertakings”. Examine.    (20 Marks)

The New Economic Reforms, initiated in the 1990s, aimed at liberalizing the Indian economy by reducing government intervention in the functioning of industries and promoting private sector participation. The main elements of these reforms included deregulation of industries, liberalization of foreign investment, disinvestment of public sector undertakings (PSUs), and reduction in trade barriers. These measures have not only reduced the scope of industrial licensing and areas reserved exclusively for the public sector but also infringed the autonomy of existing public sector undertakings. Let us examine this statement with the help of examples:

1. Reduction in the scope of industrial licensing: Prior to the economic reforms, Indian industries were heavily regulated, and a large number of industries required licenses for their establishment and operation. The reforms led to the abolition of the industrial licensing system for most industries, except for a few strategic sectors such as defense, nuclear power, and hazardous chemicals. This change allowed the private sector to enter industries that were previously the domain of the public sector, thus increasing competition and reducing the monopoly of PSUs.
Example: In the pre-reform era, the telecommunications sector was dominated by state-owned companies such as BSNL and MTNL. With the liberalization of the sector, private players like Airtel, Vodafone, and Reliance entered the market, leading to increased competition and better services to customers.

2. Reduction in areas reserved for public sector: Before the economic reforms, the government reserved several industries exclusively for the public sector, such as coal mining, steel production, and power generation. The new economic policy allowed private sector participation in these industries, leading to increased competition and reduced dominance of PSUs.
Example: The government allowed private sector participation in coal mining and power generation, leading to the establishment of companies like Tata Power and Adani Power, which now compete with public sector giants like NTPC and Coal India.

3. Infringement of autonomy of existing PSUs: The economic reforms also led to the government gradually reducing its control over the functioning of PSUs. This was done by disinvesting a part of government equity in these companies and making them more accountable to private shareholders. While this has improved the efficiency and competitiveness of some PSUs, it has also led to the infringement of their autonomy as they are now subject to market pressures and shareholder expectations.
Example: The disinvestment process in companies like ONGC, GAIL, and BPCL has resulted in these companies being more accountable to market forces and private shareholders, reducing the autonomy they enjoyed as government-controlled entities.

4. Increased pressure to perform: With the entry of private players in the market, PSUs have been forced to be more efficient and cost-effective in their operations. This, in turn, has led to increased pressure on these companies to perform well, lest they lose their market share to private competitors. While this has improved the performance of some PSUs, it has also led to the infringement of their autonomy as they are now subject to market pressures and have to take decisions based on market dynamics rather than government directives.
Example: The entry of private airlines like IndiGo and SpiceJet has forced state-owned Air India to improve its services and reduce costs in order to stay competitive in the market.

In conclusion, the New Economic Reforms have indeed reduced the scope of industrial licensing and areas reserved exclusively for the public sector and infringed the autonomy of existing public sector undertakings. While these changes have increased competition and improved efficiency in the market, they have also led to increased pressure on PSUs to perform well and adapt to market conditions, which has ultimately reduced their autonomy.

(b) “National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Ayog has become super cabinet in formulating the development agenda of our country”. Examine the statement by giving suitable examples.    (20 Marks)

The National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog has emerged as a critical institution in shaping India's development trajectory since its inception in 2015. As a think tank and policy advisory body, NITI Aayog has played a vital role in formulating the development agenda for the country. In this context, the statement that NITI Aayog has become a "super cabinet" can be examined by looking at its significant contributions in various sectors.

1. Policy formulation and strategies: NITI Aayog has been instrumental in designing key policies and strategies for the government in areas like agriculture, health, education, and infrastructure. For instance, the 'Doubling Farmers' Income by 2022' strategy, the National Nutrition Strategy, and the Three-Year Action Agenda (2017-2020) are some notable examples. These policy interventions have set the direction for future reforms in the respective sectors.

2. Cooperative federalism: NITI Aayog has played a crucial role in promoting cooperative federalism in India. It has replaced the erstwhile Planning Commission that used to decide the allocation of funds to states. NITI Aayog fosters a more democratic and participatory approach in decision-making by involving the states in policy discussions and resource allocation. This has facilitated a more inclusive and consensus-based policy environment in the country.

3. Innovation and knowledge sharing: NITI Aayog has established various platforms for promoting innovation and knowledge sharing among stakeholders. For instance, the Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) aims to create a culture of innovation and entrepreneurship in the country. Under AIM, Atal Tinkering Labs have been set up in schools to foster curiosity, creativity, and imagination among young students. Similarly, NITI Aayog has also created platforms like the Development Support Services to States (DSSS) and the South Asian Regional Centre for Urban Infrastructure (SARCI) for knowledge sharing and capacity building.

4. Monitoring and evaluation of government programs: NITI Aayog plays an essential role in monitoring and evaluating the performance of various government schemes and programs. It has developed an Outcome Monitoring Framework that tracks the progress of schemes in real-time and identifies the areas that need improvement. This has led to greater transparency and accountability in the implementation of government programs.

5. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): NITI Aayog has been entrusted with the responsibility of coordinating the efforts of various ministries and states to achieve the SDGs by 2030. It has developed the SDG India Index, which measures the progress made by states and Union Territories in achieving the SDGs. This has created healthy competition among states and encouraged them to adopt best practices to improve their performance.

In conclusion, NITI Aayog has indeed emerged as a "super cabinet" in formulating the development agenda of India. Its role in policy formulation, cooperative federalism, innovation promotion, monitoring and evaluation, and SDG coordination has significantly impacted the country's overall development trajectory. However, there is still scope for improvement in areas like enhancing its capacity, ensuring better coordination among various stakeholders, and addressing regional disparities in development outcomes.

(c) Despite the constitutional status, the District planning committees remained a non-entity in preparation and implementation of plans. Discuss.    (10 Marks)

The District Planning Committees (DPCs) were introduced as a constitutional provision under the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts of 1992, which aimed at decentralizing the planning process and ensuring local participation in developmental activities. These committees were established to consolidate and harmonize the plans prepared by the Panchayats and Municipalities in the district, and prepare a draft development plan for the district as a whole.

However, despite their constitutional status, the District Planning Committees have remained non-functional or ineffective in the preparation and implementation of plans for various reasons:

1. Lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities: The roles and responsibilities of DPCs are not clearly defined in the constitution, leading to confusion and overlaps with other planning bodies such as the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA), Zilla Parishad, and District Collectorate.

2. Poor representation and coordination: DPCs suffer from poor representation and coordination among different stakeholders, including elected representatives from Panchayats, Municipalities, Members of Parliament (MP), and Members of Legislative Assembly (MLA). This leads to a lack of consensus on developmental priorities and hampers the planning process.

3. Inadequate resources and capacity: DPCs are under-staffed and lack the technical expertise required for preparing comprehensive development plans for the district. Moreover, they are also not provided with adequate financial resources to implement the plans effectively.

4. Political interference and dominance of bureaucracy: There is a significant degree of political interference in the functioning of DPCs, which leads to the dominance of bureaucracy in the planning process. Consequently, the decisions taken are often influenced by political considerations rather than genuine developmental needs.

5. Insufficient devolution of powers and functions: Despite the constitutional mandate, the powers and functions of the DPCs have not been fully devolved to them by the state governments. This has led to a situation where the DPCs are unable to exercise their authority and become effective institutions for district planning.

Despite these challenges, there are some examples of functional District Planning Committees in India. For instance, the Kerala State Planning Board has empowered the DPCs by providing them with adequate resources, technical expertise, and training programs. This has enabled the DPCs in Kerala to prepare and implement comprehensive district plans effectively.

In conclusion, the District Planning Committees have not been able to live up to their constitutional mandate due to a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities, poor representation and coordination, inadequate resources and capacity, political interference, and insufficient devolution of powers and functions. To make the DPCs effective institutions for district planning, there is a need for greater devolution of powers and functions, capacity building, and increased coordination among various stakeholders involved in the planning process.

Q.4.(a) “The Indian judicial system has failed to deliver justice expeditiously”. Examine the challenges faced by the judiciary and suggest measures to overcome them.    (20 Marks)

The Indian Judicial System, based on the principles of the Constitution of India, has been criticized for its inability to deliver justice expeditiously. This can be attributed to various challenges faced by the judiciary, which include the following:

1. Burden of pending cases: The backlog of cases in Indian courts is enormous, with around 3.5 crore cases pending across all courts in the country. The reasons for this backlog include the slow pace of trials, outdated laws, inadequate infrastructure, and procedural delays.

2. Insufficient number of judges: The judge-to-population ratio in India is one of the lowest in the world, with approximately 21 judges per million population. The Law Commission of India has recommended increasing this ratio to 50 judges per million population. The insufficient number of judges leads to overburdening of existing judges, resulting in slower disposal of cases.

3. Inadequate infrastructure: Indian courts face a severe shortage of infrastructure, including courtrooms, staff, and technology. Many court buildings are in a dilapidated state, and there is a lack of basic facilities such as libraries, computers, and internet access. This hampers the efficient functioning of the judiciary.

4. Procedural delays: The Indian judicial system follows the adversarial model of justice, which relies heavily on procedural laws. These procedures often result in delays due to multiple adjournments, lengthy cross-examinations, and time-consuming evidence recording processes.

5. Corruption and lack of transparency: Corruption within the judiciary has been a cause of concern in India. The absence of a transparent system for the appointment and promotion of judges, as well as the lack of accountability mechanisms, has led to instances of corruption and nepotism.

6. Limited access to justice: The high costs of litigation, coupled with the complex legal procedures, discourage many individuals from seeking justice through the courts. Additionally, there is a lack of awareness about legal rights and remedies among a significant section of the population.

To overcome these challenges, the following measures can be suggested:

1. Increase the number of judges: The government should take immediate steps to increase the number of judges in accordance with the Law Commission's recommendations. This should be accompanied by streamlining the process of appointment and promotion of judges to ensure transparency and merit-based selections.

2. Improve infrastructure: Adequate funds must be allocated towards the development of infrastructure for courts, including modernizing courtrooms, providing necessary facilities, and investing in advanced technology for case management and monitoring.

3. Simplify procedural laws: Procedural laws should be simplified and rationalized to reduce delays in trials. The use of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, such as mediation and arbitration, should be encouraged to resolve disputes more efficiently.

4. Enhance judicial accountability: A robust mechanism for judicial accountability should be established to ensure that judges adhere to high standards of integrity and professionalism. This could include the establishment of an independent complaints authority to investigate allegations of misconduct against judges.

5. Legal aid and awareness: The government should strengthen legal aid services to ensure that individuals from economically weaker sections have access to justice. Additionally, efforts should be made to increase legal awareness among the general population through legal literacy programs and the use of mass media.

6. Use of technology: The judiciary should embrace technology to enhance its efficiency and transparency. This could include the use of video conferencing for hearings, online filing of cases, and digital case management systems.

In conclusion, the Indian judicial system faces multiple challenges that hinder its ability to deliver justice expeditiously. However, through concerted efforts by the government, judiciary, and other stakeholders, these challenges can be overcome, ensuring a more efficient and accessible justice system for all citizens.

(b) Analyse the specific areas of controversies with regard to Union-State financial relations, particularly in the context of one nation - one tax policy.    (20 Marks)

The Union-State financial relations in India have been a subject of debate and controversies for a long time. One of the critical areas of contention is the "one nation - one tax" policy, which is primarily aimed at creating a unified tax regime across the country. This policy has been realized through the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST), which has subsumed various indirect taxes levied by both the Central and State governments.

Some specific areas of controversies with regard to Union-State financial relations in the context of the one nation - one tax policy are:

1. Loss of fiscal autonomy: One of the main concerns of the states is the potential loss of fiscal autonomy due to the implementation of GST. Earlier, states had the power to levy and administer their taxes, which allowed them to have a significant degree of control over their resources. However, with GST, this power has been substantially diluted, and states have to rely on revenue-sharing mechanisms with the Union government.

2. Compensation for revenue loss: Many states have expressed concerns about the loss of revenue due to the shift to GST from the earlier tax regime. To address this concern, the GST legislation has provisions for compensating states for any revenue loss for a period of five years. However, there have been delays and disputes regarding the compensation, which has led to further tensions between the Union and State governments.

3. Rate setting and decision-making: The GST Council, which comprises Union and State Finance Ministers, is responsible for deciding the tax rates and other related matters. While this mechanism aims to ensure collaborative decision-making, there have been instances where states have raised concerns about their interests not being adequately represented or protected in the council.

4. Complex compliance requirements: Although GST was intended to simplify the tax regime, it has resulted in complex compliance requirements, especially for small businesses. This complexity has led to an increased administrative burden on the states, which are responsible for implementing and enforcing the tax.

5. Economic disparities and regional imbalances: India is characterized by significant regional economic disparities, and the one nation - one tax policy may not adequately address these differences. For instance, states with a higher industrial base may benefit more from GST than those that are primarily agrarian. This could potentially exacerbate regional imbalances and create further tensions between the Union and State governments.

6. Trust deficit: The controversies surrounding the implementation of GST have led to a trust deficit between the Union and State governments. Many states feel that their concerns have not been adequately addressed, which has resulted in apprehensions about the intentions of the Union government.

In conclusion, the one nation - one tax policy, as manifested through the implementation of GST, has led to several controversies regarding Union-State financial relations in India. While the policy aims to create a single unified tax regime, it has also raised concerns related to fiscal autonomy, revenue loss compensation, decision-making, and regional imbalances. Addressing these concerns through dialogue, consensus-building, and effective implementation is essential to ensure a harmonious Union-State relationship in the area of finance.

(c) Examine the role of central government in adjudication of disputes relating to water of interstate rivers.    (10 Marks)

The role of central government in adjudication of disputes relating to water of interstate rivers is crucial, as it is responsible for maintaining harmony and balance among different states, ensuring equitable distribution of water resources, and preventing conflicts that may arise due to competing demands.

1. Constitutional and legal provisions: The Indian Constitution, under Article 262, empowers the central government to adjudicate disputes relating to waters of interstate rivers. Parliament has enacted the Interstate River Water Disputes (IRWD) Act, 1956, which provides a legal framework for the resolution of such disputes. This Act authorizes the central government to set up tribunals for adjudicating disputes between two or more states over the sharing of river waters.

2. Establishing tribunals: The central government plays a key role in setting up and referring disputes to the tribunals. It is the responsibility of the central government to ensure that the tribunal is constituted with unbiased and competent members, who can effectively address the concerns of the disputing states.
Example: The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal was set up by the central government in 1990 to adjudicate the dispute between Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Puducherry over the sharing of Cauvery river waters.

3. Implementation of tribunal awards: The central government is responsible for implementing the decisions and directions of the tribunals. It is the duty of the central government to ensure that the awarded shares of water to each state are provided, and the directions given by the tribunal are followed in letter and spirit.
Example: In the case of the Ravi-Beas Water Tribunal, the central government played a crucial role in implementing the award by ensuring the construction of canals and allocating the water shares to Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

4. Central Water Commission (CWC): The CWC, an apex organization under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, plays a significant role in assisting the central government in adjudicating disputes relating to interstate rivers. It provides technical support to the government and the tribunals by conducting studies, surveys, and assessments of water resources, and recommends equitable distribution of water among the states.

5. Negotiation and mediation: The central government often acts as a mediator between the disputing states and tries to facilitate negotiations and settlements through mutual agreements. This helps in avoiding prolonged legal battles and maintaining cordial relations among the states.
Example: In the case of the Mahanadi river dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh, the central government has been actively involved in facilitating negotiations and discussions between the states to resolve the issue amicably.

In conclusion, the central government plays a vital role in the adjudication of disputes relating to water of interstate rivers by setting up tribunals, implementing their awards, providing technical assistance, and mediating between the disputing states. It ensures the equitable distribution of water resources, prevents conflicts, and promotes cooperative federalism in India.