UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Anthropology Paper 2 (Section- B) | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Q.5. Write notes on the following in about 150 words each :  (10 x 5 = 50)

Regionalism can be perceived as both an opportunity and a threat to national integration, depending on how it is managed and addressed. The term "regionalism" refers to the strong identification of people with a specific geographic region and their collective interests, culture, and aspirations. It can manifest itself in various forms, such as linguistic, cultural, or economic, and can have both positive and negative consequences for national integration.
(i) On one hand, regionalism can serve as an opportunity for national integration by fostering the development of regional identities that coexist within the larger national identity. In this sense, regionalism promotes diversity and pluralism, which can enrich the cultural fabric of a nation. For instance, the linguistic and cultural diversity in India, with its many states and languages, can be seen as a strength that contributes to the country's unity in diversity. Moreover, regionalism can lead to the decentralization of power and the devolution of authority to regional governments, which can enhance local autonomy and promote participatory democracy.
(ii) However, regionalism can also pose a threat to national integration if it leads to the rise of parochialism, narrow-mindedness, and regional chauvinism. In such cases, people may prioritize their regional identity over their national identity, and this can result in tensions and conflicts between different regions. For example, linguistic regionalism in India has occasionally led to tensions between states, such as the disputes over the sharing of river waters or the demand for separate statehood based on linguistic lines (e.g., the creation of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh). Furthermore, economic regionalism can exacerbate disparities between different regions, leading to feelings of marginalization and alienation among the less developed regions.
In conclusion, regionalism can be both an opportunity and a threat to national integration, depending on how it is managed and addressed. For regionalism to contribute positively to national integration, it is crucial for governments to adopt inclusive policies that promote the coexistence of regional and national identities, while also addressing the legitimate grievances and aspirations of different regions. This requires striking a delicate balance between fostering regional autonomy and preserving national unity. 

(b) Issues of tribal agricultural labourers.      (10 Marks) 

Tribal agricultural labourers have been facing numerous issues that have a direct impact on their livelihood, economic status, and overall well-being. These issues are mainly related to land ownership, exploitation, indebtedness, lack of social security, and the impact of development projects.
One of the main issues faced by tribal agricultural labourers is the lack of land ownership, as many of them work as landless labourers or sharecroppers. The tribal communities have traditionally practiced shifting cultivation or community ownership of land, but with the introduction of modern land revenue systems and encroachment by non-tribal people, they have lost ownership rights over their lands. This has led to their marginalization and vulnerability to exploitation by landlords and moneylenders.
(i) Exploitation is another major issue faced by tribal agricultural labourers, as they are often paid low wages and subjected to harsh working conditions. They are also often paid in kind rather than cash, which can lead to further economic hardships. Additionally, they face discrimination and exclusion from mainstream society, as they are often considered to be socially inferior due to their tribal affiliations.
(ii) Indebtedness is a common issue among tribal agricultural labourers. Due to their low economic status and lack of land ownership, they often have to borrow money from moneylenders at high interest rates to meet their basic needs, such as buying seeds, fertilizers, or other agricultural inputs. This cycle of debt traps them in poverty and makes it difficult for them to break free from their vulnerable situation.
(iii) Lack of social security and access to government welfare schemes is another challenge faced by tribal agricultural labourers. Due to their remote locations and lack of awareness, many tribal labourers are unable to access government schemes meant for their upliftment, such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) or the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY).
(iv) Development projects, such as the construction of dams, mines or industries, often lead to the displacement of tribal communities from their ancestral lands. This displacement not only results in loss of livelihood but also has a detrimental impact on the social and cultural fabric of these communities. For example, the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat led to the displacement of thousands of tribal families, causing significant hardships for the affected communities.
In conclusion, tribal agricultural labourers face a multitude of issues that need to be addressed through comprehensive policy interventions, community participation, and greater sensitivity towards their rights and needs. Efforts should be made to ensure land rights, promote sustainable agricultural practices, provide social security, and minimize the negative impacts of development projects on the lives of tribal agricultural labourers. 

(c) Major problems of nomadic and semi-nomadic groups.      (10 Marks) 

Nomadic and semi-nomadic groups face various problems and challenges in their way of life, which can be broadly categorized into social, economic, and environmental issues.
1. Social Problems: The nomadic and semi-nomadic groups often face discrimination, marginalization, and exclusion from the mainstream society. They tend to be stigmatized as 'backward' or 'uncivilized,' leading to their social isolation. Their constant mobility also prevents them from accessing essential services like education, healthcare, and social security. This ultimately leads to poor literacy rates, high infant mortality, and low life expectancy among these communities. For example, the Banjara community in India faces issues of social exclusion, poor access to education, and healthcare facilities.
2. Economic Problems: The traditional livelihoods of these communities are often threatened by changing economic and ecological conditions. They face challenges in finding regular and stable employment due to their mobility and lack of formal education. Their traditional occupations, such as pastoralism, hunting, and gathering, are increasingly becoming unsustainable due to depletion of natural resources and restrictions imposed by governments. Market forces and globalization have further marginalized these groups economically. For instance, the Raika pastoralists of Rajasthan have been facing difficulties in sustaining their traditional occupation of camel herding due to a decline in the demand for camel products.
3. Environmental Problems: The nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle is intrinsically linked to the environment and natural resources. However, these communities are facing increasing environmental degradation and loss of resources due to factors like climate change, deforestation, and urbanization. This has led to the depletion of their traditional grazing lands, water sources, and forest resources, forcing them to either change their livelihoods or migrate to urban areas in search of work. The Gujjar and Bakarwal tribes of Jammu and Kashmir are examples of pastoralist communities that are adversely affected by climate change and environmental degradation.
4. Legal and Policy Issues: Nomadic and semi-nomadic groups often lack legal recognition and protection, making them vulnerable to exploitation and eviction from their traditional lands. The absence of proper land rights and legal frameworks to protect their interests hampers their access to resources and opportunities. For example, the Denotified and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) in India have been facing issues related to land rights, legal identity, and access to welfare schemes due to their historical criminalization under British colonial rule.
In conclusion, the nomadic and semi-nomadic groups face multiple challenges in maintaining their traditional way of life. Addressing these problems requires a holistic approach that includes legal recognition, protection of their cultural practices, and sustainable development strategies that incorporate their unique needs and aspirations. 

(d) Role of the Governor in the Fifth Schedule areas.      (10 Marks) 

The Governor plays a crucial role in the administration and development of Fifth Schedule areas, which are predominantly inhabited by Scheduled Tribes. The Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals with the administration and control of these areas, aiming to preserve and protect the rights, culture, and traditions of the tribal population.
The Governor's role in these areas can be broadly classified under three categories:
1. Legislative Powers: The Governor has the authority to adapt and modify laws in the Fifth Schedule areas, taking into account the customs and traditions of the tribal communities. This power extends to modifying or exempting any central or state laws in force in these areas, ensuring that the rights and interests of the tribal population are safeguarded. For instance, the Governor of Chhattisgarh has modified certain provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, and the Indian Penal Code, 1860, for the Scheduled Areas in the state.
2. Regulatory Powers: The Governor has the power to regulate the transfer of land in the Fifth Schedule areas to prevent land alienation and exploitation of the tribal population. The Governor can restrict or prohibit the transfer of land from Scheduled Tribes to non-tribals, ensuring that the tribal people retain their rights over their land and resources. For example, the Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Areas Land Transfer Regulation Act, 1959, prohibits the transfer of land from tribal people to non-tribal people in the Scheduled Areas of the state.
3. Development and Welfare: The Governor is responsible for the overall development and welfare of the tribal population in the Fifth Schedule areas. They are empowered to establish Tribal Advisory Councils (TACs) consisting of members representing the tribal communities. These councils advise the Governor on matters related to the welfare and development of the tribal population. For instance, the Governor of Jharkhand has constituted a TAC to address issues related to the socio-economic development of the tribal population in the state.
In conclusion, the Governor plays a significant role in safeguarding the rights, culture, and traditions of the tribal population in the Fifth Schedule areas. They exercise legislative, regulatory, and developmental powers to ensure the overall welfare and upliftment of these communities. The Governor's intervention in these areas is crucial in addressing the socio-economic disparities and ensuring that the tribal population is not marginalized or exploited. 

(e) Austroasiatic languages      (10 Marks) 

The Austroasiatic languages are a family of languages spoken by over 100 million people across Southeast Asia and South Asia, with the most significant concentration in the regions of eastern India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Myanmar, as well as Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Malaysia. This language family is divided into two primary branches: the Munda languages, found mainly in India, and the Mon-Khmer languages, which are more prevalent in Southeast Asia. There are over 150 languages in this family, and they have been the subject of much anthropological research due to their historical, cultural, and linguistic significance.
(i) The Munda languages, which are spoken by tribal groups in eastern India, such as the Santali, Mundari, and Ho, are characterized by their unique phonological and morphological features, including the use of prefixes and infixes to indicate tense, aspect, and mood. These languages are also known for their complex systems of kinship terms and social organization, reflecting the hierarchical nature of the societies that speak them.
(ii) The Mon-Khmer languages, on the other hand, are spoken across a wider geographic area and exhibit greater diversity in terms of their linguistic features and cultural practices. Some well-known Mon-Khmer languages include Vietnamese, Khmer (the official language of Cambodia), and Mon (spoken in Myanmar). These languages have been influenced by various cultural and historical factors, including the spread of Buddhism, trade, and political expansion.
(iii) Anthropologists have used the study of Austroasiatic languages to explore various aspects of human culture, society, and history. For example, the reconstruction of the proto-Austroasiatic language has provided insights into the linguistic, cultural, and social practices of the ancestral speakers of these languages. Studies of the Austroasiatic languages have also revealed patterns of migration and settlement, as well as the diffusion of cultural practices and innovations across the region.
(iv) Additionally, anthropologists have examined the role of the Austroasiatic languages in shaping the social and cultural identities of their speakers. Language is a vital aspect of identity formation, and the diversity of the Austroasiatic languages allows for the coexistence of multiple identities within a single community, as well as the negotiation of these identities in the context of broader social and political processes.
In conclusion, the Austroasiatic languages are a diverse and fascinating language family that offers valuable insights into the history, culture, and society of Southeast Asia and South Asia. By examining the linguistic features, cultural practices, and social organization of the communities that speak these languages, anthropologists can contribute to a better understanding of the complex and dynamic relationships between language, culture, and society in this region. 

Q.6. Answer the following:

Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs) are government-initiated programs aimed at bringing about comprehensive and sustainable development of tribal communities in India. The primary objectives of these projects are to improve socio-economic conditions, enhance access to education and healthcare, promote economic empowerment, and preserve the cultural heritage of these communities. ITDPs are implemented through a slew of interventions, including the provision of infrastructure, social welfare schemes, income-generating activities, and capacity building programs.
The objectives of ITDPs can be broadly categorized into the following:
1. Socio-economic upliftment: The main aim of ITDPs is to improve the socio-economic conditions of the tribal communities. This involves addressing issues related to poverty, unemployment, and inequality, and ensuring that the benefits of development reach these marginalized sections of society.

2. Access to education and healthcare: ITDPs focus on enhancing access to quality education and healthcare services for tribal communities. This includes the establishment of schools, colleges, and healthcare centers in tribal areas and the provision of scholarships and other incentives to encourage enrollment.
3. Economic empowerment: ITDPs aim to promote economic self-reliance among tribal communities through various income-generating activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts. Skill development programs are also organized to enhance employability and create livelihood opportunities.
4. Infrastructure development: ITDPs work towards improving the basic infrastructure in tribal areas, including the construction of roads, bridges, and housing facilities. They also ensure the provision of essential services such as water supply, sanitation, and electricity.
5. Cultural preservation: ITDPs recognize the importance of preserving the unique cultural heritage of tribal communities. Efforts are made to protect and promote their traditional art forms, languages, and practices.
Despite significant efforts, the success of ITDPs in achieving their objectives has been mixed. There have been instances where the projects have brought about positive changes in the lives of tribal communities. For example, the establishment of Ekalavya Model Residential Schools has significantly improved the enrollment and retention rates in tribal areas, and various skill development programs have provided employment opportunities to tribal youth.
However, there are several challenges that hinder the effective implementation of ITDPs. Some of these challenges include:
1. Lack of proper implementation and monitoring: The implementation of ITDPs has often been marred by bureaucratic hurdles, poor coordination, and inadequate monitoring mechanisms. This has led to delays, cost overruns, and sub-optimal outcomes.
2. Inadequate funding: In many cases, the funds allocated for ITDPs have been insufficient to meet their objectives. This has resulted in incomplete or poorly executed projects, which fail to bring about the desired developmental impact.
3. Absence of community participation: The success of ITDPs largely depends on the active involvement of the tribal communities in the planning, execution, and monitoring of the projects. However, in many instances, there has been a lack of effective community participation, leading to a disconnect between the project objectives and the actual needs and aspirations of the people.
4. Insensitivity to local culture and traditions: Some ITDP interventions have been criticized for being insensitive to the unique cultural practices and traditions of the tribal communities. This has led to resistance and resentment among the local population, undermining the effectiveness of the projects.
In conclusion, while ITDPs have made some progress in achieving their objectives, there is still a long way to go in ensuring the comprehensive and sustainable development of India's tribal communities. Addressing the challenges mentioned above and adopting a more participatory and culturally sensitive approach can significantly enhance the effectiveness of these projects and help bridge the development gap between the tribal and non-tribal population. 

(b) Compare the functioning of traditional Tribal Council' with that of 'Gram Sabha' under PESA.      (15 Marks) 

Traditional Tribal Council and Gram Sabha under PESA (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas Act) are both institutions that play a crucial role in the governance of tribal areas in India. However, there are significant differences in their functioning, which can be understood by examining their nature, powers, and objectives.
1. Nature and Composition:
(a) Traditional Tribal Council (TTC) is an informal, customary institution that has been in existence for centuries in tribal societies. It is composed of elders, village headmen, and other influential members of the community. The selection of these members is based on local customs and traditions.
(b) On the other hand, Gram Sabha under PESA is a formal, statutory institution introduced in 1996 by the Indian government to extend the Panchayati Raj system to Scheduled Areas. It is a body consisting of all adult members of a village who are registered as voters. The Gram Sabha elects the members of the Gram Panchayat, which is the lowest tier of the Panchayati Raj system.
2. Powers and Functions:
(a) Traditional Tribal Council primarily focuses on resolving disputes, maintaining law and order, and ensuring social harmony within the community. It follows customary laws and practices to address various issues and concerns related to the community, which may include land and forest management, marriage, and social customs.
(b) In contrast, Gram Sabha under PESA has a wider range of powers and functions that include planning and implementation of various developmental schemes, monitoring of government projects, and ensuring social justice. The Gram Sabha also has the power to approve and supervise the functioning of the Gram Panchayat and its elected representatives.
3. Decision-making Process:
(a) In a Traditional Tribal Council, decisions are usually taken through consensus, and the council members take into account the opinions, beliefs, and customs of the community. The council's role is mainly advisory, suggesting solutions to disputes and problems faced by the community.
(b) On the other hand, Gram Sabha under PESA follows a more democratic decision-making process, which involves discussion, debate, and voting on various issues. The decisions taken by the Gram Sabha are binding on the Gram Panchayat and its elected representatives.
4. Legal Status:
Traditional Tribal Councils do not have any legal backing, and their decisions may not be recognized by the formal legal system. This often leads to conflicts between tribal customs and the state laws.
In contrast, Gram Sabha under PESA has a legal status, as it is an integral part of the Panchayati Raj system. Its decisions have legal validity and are enforceable by law.
Despite these differences, both institutions aim to promote the welfare and development of tribal communities. The introduction of Gram Sabha under PESA has been an attempt to incorporate traditional tribal governance systems into the formal democratic framework. In many cases, the two institutions coexist and complement each other, with the Traditional Tribal Council providing valuable inputs and insights to Gram Sabha and vice versa.
For example, in the case of the Bhil tribe in Rajasthan, the traditional tribal council, known as the "Panch," continues to play a vital role in dispute resolution and community affairs. At the same time, the Gram Sabha under PESA has been instrumental in planning and implementing developmental schemes with the active participation of the community members. In this way, the functioning of both institutions can be seen as complementary and contributing to the overall governance of tribal areas. 

(c) Explain how British policies impacted the major resources of the tribals.      (15 Marks) 

British policies had a significant impact on the major resources of the tribals in India. These policies disrupted the traditional lifestyle, economy, and social structure of the tribal communities. Some of the key ways in which British policies impacted the major resources of the tribals are:
1. Land alienation: The introduction of the Permanent Settlement system, the Ryotwari system, and the Mahalwari system by the British led to the alienation of tribal lands. These systems led to the transfer of land from tribal communities to non-tribal settlers, landlords, and moneylenders. For example, the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 was introduced to safeguard the land rights of the tribals in the Chotanagpur region, but it failed to prevent land alienation due to legal loopholes and corruption.
2. Commercialization of forests: The British introduced the Indian Forest Act of 1865 and subsequent amendments, which led to the commercialization of forests and restricted the access and rights of the tribals to forest resources. The traditional rights of the tribals to collect minor forest produce, grazing, and shifting cultivation were curtailed, leading to their impoverishment. For instance, the Munda tribe in Jharkhand and the Baiga tribe in Madhya Pradesh faced severe restrictions on their access to forests, affecting their livelihoods.
3. Introduction of cash crops: The British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops like tea, coffee, and rubber, which led to the displacement of traditional food crops. This resulted in food scarcity and increased dependence on market forces, making the tribals vulnerable to price fluctuations and economic exploitation. For example, the Toda tribe in the Nilgiri Hills was impacted by the introduction of tea plantations.
4. Exploitation of mineral resources: The British exploited the mineral resources in the tribal regions, leading to their displacement and marginalization. Mining activities led to environmental degradation, loss of land, and disruption of the traditional economy. For example, the Santhal tribe in Jharkhand and the Bhil tribe in Rajasthan faced displacement due to mining activities.
5. Labour migration and bonded labour: Due to the economic impoverishment caused by the British policies, many tribals were forced to migrate to other regions in search of work. They often ended up as bonded laborers, working in inhuman conditions on plantations or as construction workers. For instance, the Oraon tribe from Chotanagpur region migrated to work in tea plantations in Assam.
6. Spread of diseases: The British policies led to the influx of non-tribal populations into tribal areas, resulting in the spread of diseases like malaria and cholera. The tribal communities, with their limited immunity to these diseases, suffered high mortality rates. For example, the Great Famine of 1876-1878, exacerbated by British policies, led to the death of many tribals in the Madras Presidency.
7. Disintegration of social fabric: The British policies, including the introduction of modern education, religion, and administration, led to the disintegration of the traditional social fabric of the tribal communities. The traditional tribal institutions and leadership were undermined, leading to social unrest and uprisings like the Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) and the Munda Ulgulan (1899-1900).
In conclusion, British policies had a profound and lasting impact on the major resources of the tribals in India. Their traditional way of life, economy, and social structure were severely disrupted, leading to their marginalization and impoverishment. 

Q.7. Answer the following:

G. S. Ghurye and Verrier Elwin were two prominent anthropologists who had differing views on the approach towards tribal populations in India. Their perspectives can be understood in the context of the larger debate between the assimilationist and isolationist approaches to tribal development.
G. S. Ghurye, an assimilationist, believed in the integration of tribal populations into the mainstream society. He was of the view that tribal communities were essentially backward Hindus and that they should be assimilated into the larger Hindu culture. Ghurye argued that the tribal populations had been isolated due to historical and geographical factors, and their integration into mainstream society would lead to their development and upliftment. Some key aspects of Ghurye's approach include:
1. Cultural Assimilation: Ghurye believed that tribal cultures were not distinct and should be absorbed into the larger Hindu culture. He emphasized the need for tribal communities to adopt Hindu customs, practices, and beliefs.
2. Social Integration: Ghurye advocated for the integration of tribal populations into the mainstream social structure. This included the establishment of educational and healthcare facilities in tribal areas, as well as the promotion of inter-caste and inter-tribal marriages to break down social barriers.
3. Economic Development: Ghurye believed that the economic upliftment of tribal communities was crucial for their overall development. He promoted the idea of providing vocational training and employment opportunities to tribal populations, as well as the development of infrastructure in tribal areas.
On the other hand, Verrier Elwin, an isolationist, advocated for the preservation of tribal cultures and their autonomy. He believed that tribal communities had a distinct identity and way of life that should be protected from external influences. Elwin's approach can be summarized through the following points:
1. Cultural Preservation: Elwin emphasized the need to preserve and document the unique cultural practices, languages, and traditions of tribal communities. He believed that tribal cultures had intrinsic value and should be respected and protected.
2. Political Autonomy: Elwin argued for the establishment of self-governing institutions in tribal areas that would allow tribal communities to have control over their own affairs. This would help them maintain their distinct identity and way of life.
3. Economic Self-reliance: Elwin believed that tribal populations should be encouraged to develop their own local economies based on their traditional knowledge and skills. This would help them maintain their autonomy and ensure their sustainable development.
In conclusion, G. S. Ghurye and Verrier Elwin had contrasting views on the approach towards tribal populations. While Ghurye believed in the assimilation of tribal populations into mainstream society, Elwin advocated for the preservation of their distinct cultural identity and autonomy. These perspectives continue to shape the debate on tribal development in India, with the government adopting a mix of both approaches to address the diverse needs of the tribal communities. 

(b) Discuss the issues and solutions related to the Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribe populations in India.      (15 Marks) 

The Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) populations in India are the most marginalized and vulnerable social groups, who have historically faced discrimination, social exclusion, and economic disadvantages. The Constitution of India recognizes these groups and provides special provisions to uplift their social and economic status. However, there are several issues that still persist in their development and inclusion in mainstream society. In this answer, we will discuss the major issues faced by the SC and ST populations and propose some possible solutions.
Issues faced by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India:
1. Social Discrimination: Even after more than seven decades of independence, the SC and ST populations continue to face social discrimination in various forms like untouchability, social exclusion, and denial of basic rights. This discrimination is rooted in the caste system, which assigns them the lowest status in the social hierarchy.
2. Economic Disadvantages: The SC and ST populations are economically disadvantaged due to historical reasons, as they were traditionally engaged in menial and manual jobs with little opportunity for social mobility. This has led to limited access to resources, low levels of income, and high poverty rates among these communities.
3. Educational Disparities: The SC and ST populations have lower literacy rates and educational attainment compared to the general population. The reasons for this disparity include poor access to quality education, lack of awareness about the importance of education, and financial constraints.
4. Political Marginalization: The SC and ST populations have low representation in the political sphere, which results in their concerns and issues not being adequately addressed. Although there are reserved seats for these groups in legislative bodies, their effective participation and influence in decision-making processes are limited.
5. Health and Nutritional Issues: The SC and ST populations have poor health indicators, such as high infant mortality rates, malnutrition, and low life expectancy. This is due to factors like inadequate access to healthcare facilities, poor sanitation, and lack of awareness about health and hygiene.
6. Land and Property Rights: The SC and ST populations often face issues related to land and property rights, as they are either landless or have insecure land tenure. This makes them vulnerable to land grabbing and displacement, resulting in a loss of livelihood and further marginalization.
Solutions to address the issues faced by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:
1. Legal Framework: Strengthening the legal framework and effective implementation of existing laws, such as the Prevention of Atrocities Act, to protect the rights of the SC and ST populations and to prevent discrimination and violence against them.
2. Economic Empowerment: Implementing targeted programs for skill development, entrepreneurship, and access to credit for the SC and ST populations to enhance their economic opportunities and reduce poverty.
3. Access to Quality Education: Ensuring universal access to quality education for the SC and ST populations by providing scholarships, residential schools, and incentives for their retention and higher education.
4. Political Participation: Encouraging effective political participation of the SC and ST populations by ensuring their representation in decision-making bodies and providing capacity-building programs to develop leadership skills.
5. Health and Nutrition: Implementing targeted health and nutrition interventions to improve health indicators among the SC and ST populations and ensuring their access to quality healthcare services.
6. Land and Property Rights: Implementing land reforms to provide secure land tenure and property rights to the SC and ST populations, thereby ensuring their livelihood security and reducing their vulnerability to displacement.
7. Social Awareness and Sensitization: Promoting social awareness and sensitization programs to break stereotypes and prejudices against the SC and ST populations and promoting social harmony and integration.
In conclusion, addressing the issues faced by the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe populations in India requires a multi-pronged approach that encompasses legal, economic, educational, political, health, and social interventions. It is essential to ensure equity and social justice for these marginalized communities to achieve inclusive and sustainable development in India. 

(c) Explain the social and religious consequences of contact between tribal and non-tribal populations.      (15 Marks) 

The contact between tribal and non-tribal populations has had significant social and religious consequences. This interaction has led to the transformation of cultural, economic, and political systems of both tribal and non-tribal societies. Some of the major social and religious consequences of contact between these populations are:
1. Acculturation: Acculturation refers to the process of cultural change and adaptation that occurs when two distinct cultural groups come into contact. When tribal and non-tribal populations interact, there is a mutual exchange of cultural elements, such as language, customs, beliefs, and values. For instance, the Santhal tribe in eastern India has adopted elements of Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam due to their interaction with non-tribal populations.
2. Social stratification: The contact between tribal and non-tribal populations often leads to the introduction of social stratification in tribal societies. Many tribal communities traditionally followed an egalitarian social structure. However, with the influence of non-tribal social systems, particularly the caste system, social hierarchies and inequalities have emerged in tribal societies. For example, the Gond tribe in central India has experienced the emergence of social stratification due to their interaction with non-tribal groups.
3. Religious conversion: The interaction between tribal and non-tribal populations has also led to religious conversions among tribal communities. Missionary activities, particularly by Christian missionaries, have resulted in a significant number of tribal people converting to Christianity. For example, the Khasi and Jaintia tribes in Meghalaya have largely converted to Christianity due to contact with British missionaries during the colonial period.
4. Disintegration of traditional institutions: The contact between tribal and non-tribal populations has led to the disintegration of traditional tribal institutions, such as village councils, kinship-based social structures, and indigenous religious practices. This has resulted in the weakening of tribal identity and the erosion of cultural heritage. For instance, the Toda tribe in the Nilgiri Hills has experienced the decline of their traditional institutions due to their interaction with non-tribal populations.
5. Economic exploitation: The interaction between tribal and non-tribal populations has often led to the economic exploitation of tribal communities. The commercialization of tribal lands, resources, and labor has resulted in the dispossession of tribal people from their ancestral lands and the marginalization of their economic status. For example, the Baiga tribe in Madhya Pradesh has faced displacement and economic exploitation due to the expansion of non-tribal populations and industries in their region.
6. Cultural assimilation: The contact between tribal and non-tribal populations may lead to the cultural assimilation of tribal people into mainstream society. As tribal communities adopt the cultural practices, language, and values of non-tribal populations, they may lose their distinct cultural identity. For instance, the Great Andamanese tribe has experienced significant cultural assimilation and loss of their traditional language due to their interaction with non-tribal settlers in the Andaman Islands.
In conclusion, the contact between tribal and non-tribal populations has had profound social and religious consequences for both groups. The interaction has led to cultural exchange, social stratification, religious conversion, disintegration of traditional institutions, economic exploitation, and cultural assimilation. Understanding these consequences is crucial for policymakers and anthropologists to address the challenges faced by tribal communities and to promote their social and cultural rights. 

Q.8. Answer the following:

Tribal movements in North-East and Central India exhibit significant differences in terms of their nature, objectives, and historical background. While the tribal movements in North-East India are primarily driven by ethnic, cultural, and political aspirations, the movements in Central India are largely focused on social, economic, and land rights issues.
In North-East India, tribal movements have been shaped by the unique historical, cultural, and political contexts of the region. The region is home to a diverse range of ethnic groups, who have distinct languages, customs, and traditions. The movements in North-East India can be primarily categorized into three types:
1. Movements for autonomy and statehood: Many tribal groups in the North-East have demanded greater autonomy and separate statehood within the Indian Union, such as the Bodos, Kukis, and Karbis. The creation of states like Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram exemplify the success of these movements.
2. Movements for secession and self-determination: Some tribal groups in the North-East, such as the Nagas and the Mizos, initially sought complete independence from India. However, over time, these movements have transformed into a demand for greater autonomy and self-determination within the Indian Union.
3. Ethnic conflicts and movements for cultural preservation: Inter-tribal conflicts and tensions between indigenous tribes and non-tribal migrants have also given rise to movements centered around the protection and preservation of tribal culture, identity, and resources.
In contrast, tribal movements in Central India are centered on social, economic, and land rights issues. The central Indian tribal belt, which includes states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, is characterized by widespread poverty, land alienation, displacement, and exploitation of tribal communities. The movements in this region can be categorized into two types:

1. Movements against land alienation and displacement: The central Indian tribal communities have faced severe land alienation and displacement due to developmental projects, mining, and industrialization. Movements like the Chotanagpur Unnati Samaj in Jharkhand and the Koel Karo resistance in Bihar are examples of tribal movements resisting land alienation and displacement.
2. Movements for social and economic rights: Tribal communities in Central India have also mobilized to demand better implementation of protective legislation, social justice, and economic development. Examples include the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, which seeks to address issues of social and economic deprivation within the newly formed state of Jharkhand.
The current status of existing tribal movements in both regions is marked by a degree of fragmentation and diversification. In North-East India, while some movements have achieved their objectives, others continue to negotiate with the central government for greater autonomy and recognition. The Bodo Territorial Council and the recent signing of the Naga Peace Accord are examples of ongoing negotiations.
In Central India, tribal movements continue to focus on issues of land rights, resource control, and social justice. However, there has been a diversification of movements, with new organizations and platforms emerging to address specific local issues. Additionally, the rise of left-wing extremism or Naxalism in some parts of the central Indian tribal belt has further complicated the nature and dynamics of tribal movements in the region.
In conclusion, the tribal movements in North-East and Central India exhibit distinct characteristics shaped by the diverse historical, cultural, and political contexts. While both regions share a common goal of empowering and uplifting their respective tribal communities, the nature and objectives of the movements vary significantly.  

(b) Briefly describe the anthropological perspective on development. How have anthropologists contributed in India's rural development?      (15 Marks) 

The anthropological perspective on development focuses on understanding the social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions of human societies and how they interact and change over time. This perspective is holistic, comparative, and field-based, emphasizing the need to understand and respect diverse cultures, beliefs, and practices. Anthropologists examine development as a process that affects individuals, communities, and societies in various ways, often challenging conventional ideas of progress and growth.
Anthropologists have contributed significantly to India's rural development by studying and documenting the socio-cultural dynamics of rural communities, as well as by actively engaging in development initiatives. Their work has helped identify and address the unique needs, aspirations, and challenges faced by different communities, thus enabling more effective and inclusive development policies and interventions. Some key contributions of anthropologists in India's rural development include:
1. Understanding social structure and organization: Anthropologists have provided insights into the complex social hierarchies, caste systems, kinship patterns, and power dynamics that shape rural societies in India. This understanding helps in designing interventions that are sensitive to local social structures and can effectively reach marginalized groups.
2. Cultural beliefs and practices: By studying the cultural beliefs and practices of rural communities, anthropologists have helped identify the factors that influence people's attitudes and behaviors towards development issues such as education, health, and natural resource management. This knowledge enables the design of culturally appropriate and context-specific development interventions.
3. Indigenous knowledge and local innovation: Anthropologists have documented the rich traditional knowledge and innovative practices of rural communities in areas such as agriculture, water management, and health care. Recognizing and integrating such indigenous knowledge can lead to more sustainable and locally relevant development solutions.
4. Participatory approaches: Anthropologists have been instrumental in promoting participatory approaches to rural development, wherein communities are actively involved in identifying their needs, designing interventions, and monitoring their outcomes. This approach empowers communities and ensures that development initiatives are more effective and sustainable.
5. Gender and development: Anthropologists have played a crucial role in highlighting the importance of gender perspectives in development, by examining the different roles, responsibilities, and constraints faced by men and women in rural communities. This understanding has led to the formulation of gender-sensitive development policies and programs.
6. Addressing social exclusion and inequality: Anthropologists have contributed to the identification and analysis of social exclusion and inequality in rural India, particularly in terms of caste, gender, and tribal identity. This understanding has informed policies and programs aimed at promoting social equity and inclusive development.
Examples of anthropological contributions to rural development in India include the work of M.N. Srinivas on the caste system, Verrier Elwin's studies on tribal communities, and the pioneering efforts of anthropologists like Irawati Karve and A.K. Sen in promoting participatory and people-centered development. 

(c) How can a balance be struck between livelihood concern and environmental dégradation in the context of shifting cultivation?      (15 Marks) 

Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture or swidden agriculture, is a traditional farming practice in which small patches of land are cleared, burned, and cultivated for a short period before being left fallow for the soil to regain fertility. This practice has been widely used in many parts of the world, especially in tropical and subtropical regions, including India. However, shifting cultivation has been criticized for causing deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and contributing to climate change. To strike a balance between livelihood concerns and environmental degradation, we can consider the following points:
1. Promote sustainable agricultural practices: Encourage farmers to adopt sustainable agricultural practices such as agroforestry, intercropping, and organic farming, which can help maintain soil fertility, reduce deforestation, and protect biodiversity. For example, in Mizoram, India, an alternative to shifting cultivation called "the New Land Use Policy" was introduced, which promotes horticulture, animal husbandry, and other sustainable practices.
2. Land-use planning: Implement proper land-use planning and zoning to regulate the areas where shifting cultivation can be practiced. This can help in preventing deforestation in ecologically sensitive areas and conserving important ecosystems. For example, in the Indian state of Nagaland, the government has initiated a program called 'Jhum Intensification and Biodiversity Conservation,' which aims to promote sustainable land-use practices.
3. Capacity building and awareness: Educate and train farmers in sustainable farming practices and the importance of preserving the environment. This can help in reducing the negative impacts of shifting cultivation on the environment and promoting sustainable livelihoods. For example, in the Indian state of Meghalaya, the North Eastern Region Community Resource Management Project (NERCORMP) has been working to improve the livelihoods of shifting cultivators by providing training and support in sustainable farming practices.
4. Provide alternative livelihood options: Encourage and support diversification in income-generating activities such as handicrafts, agro-processing, and ecotourism, which can reduce dependence on shifting cultivation and promote sustainable development. For example, in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, the government has been promoting alternative livelihood options like horticulture, apiculture, and sericulture to reduce dependence on shifting cultivation.
5. Policy reforms and incentives: Formulate and implement policies that incentivize sustainable agriculture and discourage environmentally destructive practices. Provide financial and technical support to farmers for adopting sustainable farming practices. For example, in India, the government has introduced various schemes such as the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and the National Bamboo Mission, which aim to promote sustainable agriculture and reduce dependence on shifting cultivation.
6. Community participation and traditional knowledge: Involve local communities in decision-making and planning processes related to land-use management and incorporate traditional knowledge in sustainable farming practices. For example, the Indian state of Manipur has initiated a program called 'Loktak Livelihood Mission,' which aims to involve local communities in the conservation of the Loktak Lake ecosystem and promote sustainable livelihoods.
By incorporating the above measures, a balance can be struck between livelihood concerns and environmental degradation in the context of shifting cultivation. It is essential to adopt a holistic approach that considers the socio-economic, cultural, and ecological aspects of the communities involved in shifting cultivation, and work towards sustainable development in these regions.