Role of Genetic and Environmental Factors in Determining Human Behaviour | Psychology for UPSC Optional (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Different psychologists have offered various definitions of personality, emphasizing motivational aspects and other key traits. The most widely accepted definition is by Gordon W. Allport, who described personality as "the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment."

Role of Heredity in Personality Development

The Mechanics of Heredity

During fertilization, the genetic material from both parents combines to form a fertilized egg with 46 chromosomes, half from each parent. These chromosomes contain genes, which are the fundamental units of heredity. Genes carry the blueprint for an individual's development, guiding their growth from a single cell to an adult. Within this inherited genetic structure lie the potentialities for various behaviors.

Role of Heredity

• The personality pattern is fundamentally determined by the maturation of physical and mental traits that are part of an individual's hereditary endowment.
• While social and environmental factors influence how a personality develops, the core aspects come from within the individual.
• The main components of personality, including physique, intelligence, and temperament, are inherited.
• The development of a person also depends on the environmental influences they are exposed to during their growth.
• Researchers emphasize the importance of hereditary foundations in shaping personality. Personality is believed to form through the interaction between the child and significant figures, such as parents and siblings.
• The child’s biological constitution, needs, and intellectual capacities influence how they respond to these significant figures.

Interaction of Heredity and Environment in Personality Development

Personality development is a complex process influenced by the interaction between hereditary (genetic) factors and environmental (external) factors. Individuals actively select and interact with their environment based on their needs, shaping their personality patterns in the process.

Role of Heredity

• Heredity plays a crucial role in determining the potential limits of personality development. For instance, a person with inherited low intelligence may struggle to develop a personality pattern that allows for effective personal and social adjustment, regardless of environmental conditions.
• Limitations Imposed by Heredity
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• Heredity sets boundaries on what individuals can achieve in terms of personality development. People are not entirely free to choose and cultivate any personality pattern they desire.
• Example of Intelligence
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• For example, a person with low intelligence may aspire to become a leader and work hard to develop leadership traits, but hereditary limitations may prevent them from achieving this goal.

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Influence of Environment on Personality Development

Introduction

Heredity and Environment: A Dynamic Interaction

• Traits and Environment. No trait is solely determined by heredity; it requires certain minimal environmental conditions for its development. This is true for physical traits and even more so for intellectual, social, and emotional traits.
• Interaction of Factors. At any moment, an individual is the result of countless interactions between their genetic makeup and physical and sociocultural environment.

Physical Environment

• Definition. The physical environment includes the natural world surrounding the individual, such as climate, terrain, food supplies, and disease pathogens.
• Diversity of Conditions. People live under diverse conditions of climate, terrain, and natural resources, which can significantly impact their development.

Climate and Terrain

• Adaptive Changes. Inhabitants of areas with unfavorable climate or terrain conditions often undergo adaptive physiological changes. For example, the circulatory system of the Eskimo is adapted to lie deep within a protective fatty layer to conserve body heat.

Scarcity, Disease, and Adverse Conditions

• Impact of Adverse Conditions. Living in areas with rampant disease and inadequate food supplies can severely impact physical vigor, cause bodily damage, and result in loss of life. These adverse conditions can indirectly influence personality development.
• Role of Cultural Factors. The precise effect of physical conditions on personality development is challenging to assess, as cultural factors often complicate the situation.
• Comparative Importance. Generally, the role of the physical environment appears less important than that of the sociocultural environment in influencing individual and group differences in development.

Socio-Cultural Environment

Just as humans inherit genetic traits shaped by millions of years of evolution, they also inherit a socio-cultural background formed over thousands of years of social development. This socio-cultural heritage differs widely among social groups, yet there are enough commonalities worldwide to discuss "human culture" meaningfully. Every community has its own language, family structure, social organization, customs, values, music, and art. These aspects are typically human and are passed down in similar ways across societies, sometimes intentionally and other times unintentionally. The socio-cultural environment influences individual development primarily through the following means:

i) Group Membership and Instruction

• Societies, both consciously and unconsciously, impart their concepts, values, and accepted behaviors to children through social institutions like home, school, and religious places.
• Systematic instruction and the examples set by adults or other role models contribute to a degree of uniformity and establish the basic personality type of a society.
• An individual's basic personality structure is shaped not only by the larger social group but also by various subgroups such as family, religion, occupation, social class, age, and gender.
• Each subgroup promotes certain values, beliefs, and approved behavior patterns, which may be restricted by societal norms.
• The groups an individual identifies with or aspires to be part of, known as "reference groups," influence their goals, behavior, and self-evaluation.

ii) Status and Role

• Within every social structure, there are various distinguishable positions such as doctor, teacher, carpenter, parent, student, and child, each contributing to the group's functioning and assigned a certain "social status."
• Status comes with both privileges and responsibilities. For instance, a doctor has the privilege of practicing medicine and is held in high regard by society.
• In return, doctors are expected to adhere to ethical standards, and failure to do so can result in losing their medical license and social standing.

(i) Social Roles

• To define the expected behaviour of individuals in specific positions and statuses, society creates various roles for its members, each linked to a particular pattern of behaviour. For instance, the role of an army officer entails qualities like loyalty, decisiveness, courage, and resourcefulness. Every person in society, whether young or old, tends to develop the skills, behaviour, and values that their role demands. Deviating too far from these expectations can lead to difficulties in social relationships.
• The impact of role expectations on personality development is exemplified by Margaret Mead's study (1949) of the Tchambuli, a New Guinea tribe with reversed sex roles compared to Western society. In the Tchambuli tribe, women are responsible for earning a living, managing business transactions, initiating courtship, and generally leading the family. Conversely, men are expected to be flirtatious, graceful, gossip-prone, good homemakers, and interested in dancing and theatricals. These established roles in the Tchambuli society channel personality development in ways that differ significantly from Western culture.

(ii) Interpersonal Relationships

• Humans are inherently social beings, and much of their personality development is shaped by interactions with others. Different societies may have predominant patterns of interpersonal relationships, such as competition, cooperation, hostility, or friendliness. However, interpersonal relationships generally contribute to individuality rather than similarity in development, as no two individuals have the same acquaintances or identical relationships with people they know in common. Even parents relate to each of their children in slightly different ways, leading to unique experiences of love, hate, friendship, distrust, shared experiences, and misunderstandings.
• Among the various interpersonal relationships people experience throughout their lives, those with parents and peer groups have the most significant influence on personality development. Additionally, relationships with siblings, grandparents, teachers, and neighbours can also play a crucial role in shaping personality. Even a chance encounter with someone can alter the course of an individual's life.

Role of Learning in Personality Development

Learning plays a crucial role in shaping our personality, especially through processes like conditioning, imitation, and training under guidance. Our attitudes towards ourselves, how we respond to others and situations, our acceptance of social roles, and our methods of personal and social adjustment, including defense mechanisms, are all learned through repetition and reinforced by the satisfaction they bring. Over time, these learned responses become habitual and form the traits that define our personality.

• Social pressures, both at home and in society, influence which traits become part of our personality. For example, if a boy is encouraged to be aggressive because it is seen as a suitable trait for males, he will learn to respond aggressively.
• However, if aggressiveness is disapproved of or does not bring satisfaction, he will try other methods of adjustment until he finds one that meets his needs, and this will become his habitual behavior.

Understanding that learning is fundamental to personality development is important for two reasons:

• It shows that we can exercise control to ensure individuals develop personality patterns that lead to good personal and social adjustment.
• It also indicates that unhealthy self-concepts and socially unacceptable patterns of adjustment can be changed and modified.

As with all learning, the sooner a change or modification is attempted, the easier it will be.

Process of Socialization and Its Role in Personality Development

Meaning of Socialization

• Socialization is the process through which a human infant, who is initially just a biological organism with basic animal needs, is gradually shaped into a social being. During this process, the individual learns the social ways of acting and feeling. This is essential because, without socialization, society could not sustain itself, culture would not exist, and the individual could not become a person with a distinct personality.
• Socialization involves introducing the individual into the social and cultural world, making them a specific member of society and its various groups, and encouraging them to accept the norms and values of that society. It is a learning process that enables individuals to perform social roles effectively.

Role of Socialization in Personality Development:

• Socialization plays a crucial role in shaping human personality. The cases of Anna and Isabelle illustrate this point.
• Anna: Anna was an illegitimate child isolated from society. When she was found at nearly six years old, she demonstrated no signs of intelligence, such as the ability to talk, walk, or express herself. This case highlights that without socialization, biological factors alone are insufficient for developing a complete personality. Socialization, particularly through communicative contact, is essential for personality development.
• Isabelle: Isabelle, like Anna, was an illegitimate child kept in isolation. When discovered at six and a half years old, she appeared unaware of social relationships and behaved like a much younger child. However, with effort, she learned to speak and eventually reached a normal level of development by eight and a half years old. This case demonstrates that while early isolation and lack of speech can hinder development, it does not eliminate the possibility of later acquisition.

Agencies of Socialisation:

• Family: The family is the primary and most influential agent of socialization. It is within the family that individuals first learn about social norms, values, and roles. Parents and siblings play a crucial role in shaping a child's personality and behavior.
• Schools: Schools are formal institutions that provide education and discipline. They teach children not only academic knowledge but also social skills, teamwork, and respect for authority. Schools introduce individuals to a broader social environment and help in the development of their personality.
• Peer Groups: Peer groups consist of individuals of similar age and social status. They become increasingly important as individuals grow older, especially during adolescence. Peer groups influence behavior, interests, and social skills. They provide a sense of belonging and help in the development of identity.
• Mass Media: In today’s digital age, mass media, including television, the internet, and social media, play a significant role in socialization. They expose individuals to a wide range of information, cultural norms, and social behaviors. Mass media can influence opinions, behaviors, and social interactions.

Socialization is crucial for transforming a child into a valuable member of society and fostering social maturity. It is essential to understand who socializes with the child, as there are two primary sources of a child's socialization:

Authority Figures: These are individuals who have authority over the child and play a significant role in their socialization. This category includes: 
- Parents: The primary caregivers who instill values, norms, and behaviors in the child. 
- Teachers: Educators who impart knowledge and social skills, guiding the child's behavior and interactions. 
- Elderly Persons: Older individuals who provide wisdom, guidance, and examples of social behavior. 
- The State: Government institutions that enforce laws and regulations, shaping the child's understanding of societal norms.

Peers and Similar Individuals: This group includes individuals who are similar to the child and influence their socialization through shared experiences and interests. This category includes: 
- Peer Groups: Friends and acquaintances who share similar age and interests, influencing each other's behavior and social skills. 
- Friends: Close companions who have a significant impact on the child's social development through shared activities and values. 
- Fellows in Clubs: Members of clubs or organizations who share common interests, providing a sense of belonging and influencing social behavior.In summary, the main agencies of socialization involve a combination of authority figures and peers, each playing a vital role in shaping the child's social development and integration into society.

Primary Agencies of Socialisation

(i) The Family

• The family is the first and most important agency of socialisation for a child.
• Parents are closest to the child both physically and emotionally, and they teach the child essential skills and values.
• From parents, children learn language, societal morality, and respect for authority.
• The family is where a child learns fundamental civic virtues such as cooperation, tolerance, self-sacrifice, love, and affection.
• Because of this, the family is often called the "cradle of social virtues."
• The family environment influences nearly every aspect of a child's growth and development.

(ii) Neighbourhood

• The neighbourhood is the second important agency of socialisation.
• A good neighbourhood can help a child grow into a positive and responsible citizen.

(iii) Peer Group or the Play Mates

• The peer group and friends are also a significant agency of socialisation.
• The relationship between a child and their playmates is one of equality.
• Children learn cooperative morality and informal aspects of culture such as fashion, fads, crazes, modes of gratification, and forbidden knowledge from their peers.
• This knowledge is important for social integration.

(iv) The School

• Schools are also a very important agency of socialisation.
• In schools, children receive education that shapes their ideas and attitudes.
• Proper education can help a child become a good citizen, while inadequate education can lead to negative outcomes.
• Education is crucial for the process of socialisation, and a well-planned education system can produce capable individuals.

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Secondary Agencies of Socialization

The previously mentioned agencies are known as the primary agencies of socialization. However, there are a few other agencies that are considered secondary agencies of socialization. These include:

(i) Religion

• Religion has played a significant role in society throughout history. In the early days of societies, religion served as a strong bond of unity. While the importance of religion may have diminished in modern society, it still continues to shape our beliefs and ways of life. For example, a child observes their parents going to the temple and performing religious ceremonies, and listens to religious sermons, which can influence the child's life path and shape their ideas.

(ii) The State

• The state functions as an authoritative agency of socialization. It creates laws for the people and establishes the expected modes of conduct. Individuals are required to obey these laws, and failure to do so may result in punishment. In this way, the state also shapes a person's behavior and personality.

Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment

Heredity refers to the genetic makeup and biological factors inherited from parents, while environment encompasses the external conditions and influences, such as family, culture, and experiences, that shape an individual.

The Role of Heredity

• Heredity plays a crucial role in determining the potential and traits a child is born with.
• Genetic factors influence aspects such as temperament, intelligence, and certain personality traits.

The Role of Environment

• The environment significantly impacts how hereditary traits are expressed and developed.
• Factors such as parenting styles, socio-economic status, cultural norms, and early life experiences shape a child's personality and behavior.

Interaction Between Heredity and Environment

• The interaction between heredity and environment is complex and dynamic.
• Heredity provides the potential, while the environment influences the realization of that potential.
• For example, a child with a genetic predisposition for high intelligence may not reach their potential without a stimulating environment.

Critical Periods and Sensitive Periods

• There are critical and sensitive periods in development where the influence of environment is particularly strong.
• For instance, language development is highly influenced by environmental factors during early childhood.

Examples

• A child with a genetic predisposition for athleticism (heredity) may become a successful athlete if raised in an environment that encourages sports and physical activity (environment).
• Conversely, a child with a genetic predisposition for aggression may develop a more peaceful temperament if raised in a nurturing and non-violent environment.

Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment

The relative importance of heredity and environment in shaping personality depends on three factors:

• The specific trait being affected
• The particular aspect of the environment impacting the developing trait
• The scope and intensity of environmental forces

Some traits are stable and do not change much, regardless of environmental influences, while others are unstable and easily affected by environmental conditions. For example, one person may be shy due to their genetic makeup, while another may become shy because of conflicts with their environment.

Training vs. Heredity

In some cases, training and environmental factors can outweigh hereditary influences, while in other cases, heredity may be more significant. Generally, traits closely linked to structural inheritance are less susceptible to change by environmental factors.

The type and intensity of environmental influences, whether physiological, intellectual, or emotional, also impact how much different traits can change. Structural characteristics tend to be more stable than functional traits.

Value of Knowing Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment

• Practical Application: Understanding the balance of heredity and environment in personality development can help identify children at risk for neurotic or healthy-minded outcomes based on their innate sensitivities and responses.
• Dynamic Interaction: The interplay between heredity and environment is not fixed; they can reinforce or conflict with each other, and the influence of one depends on the other.

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Moulding of Personality

Introduction

• Personality refers to the unique set of characteristics, traits, and patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that make an individual who they are. It encompasses a wide range of factors, including temperament, behavior, attitudes, and emotional responses.
• The moulding of personality involves the process by which these traits and characteristics are shaped and developed over time, particularly in response to environmental, social, and cultural influences.

Early Influence on Personality Development

• The belief that personality is shaped early in life was emphasized by Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century. He observed that many of his patients with personality issues had unhappy childhood experiences, which he believed stemmed from the frustration of their natural impulses.
• Bartemeier noted that unfavorable early experiences can have a significant impact on personality because the personality pattern is not fully organized at that stage. However, this damage is not necessarily permanent.

         Why Moulding Begins Early         

•   Personality moulding starts early in postnatal life because the capacity to learn is present from a young age, ready to function before the baby turns one.  
•   The experiences, associations, and expectations during the early years significantly influence the developing personality and determine the kind of person the child will become.  

How the Personality Pattern is Moulded

•   The cultural group plays a crucial role in setting the pattern for the approved basic personality, expecting all members to conform to it.  
•   Personality is shaped and altered through interactions with the culture in which an individual lives.  
•   In cultures with stable values, the approved basic personality pattern remains relatively unchanged. In contrast, cultures with frequent and radical value changes also experience shifts in the approved basic personality pattern, though not in the entire pattern, just certain aspects of it.  

Sources of Moulding

•   Personality moulding begins in the home, where the child’s attitudes, feelings, and behaviour patterns are first shaped.  
•   Later, these patterns are reinforced or altered in settings such as school, peer groups, and the broader community.  
•   The family is the most crucial source of personality moulding, being the child’s first social environment and the group with which they have the most frequent and close contact.  
•   Other important sources include the home, school, teachers, peer groups, media, religion, and occupation.  

Moulding Techniques

Moulding Techniques

There are two main methods for shaping personality to align with culturally accepted standards:

• Learning through guidance and control: This method involves directing and controlling behavior by another person, commonly known as "child-training."
• Learning through imitation: This method involves adopting the beliefs, attitudes, and behavior patterns of another person, known as "identification."

Child-training is an outer-directed method of learning, while identification is an inner-directed process. It is difficult to determine which method is more important in shaping personality, as their effectiveness varies from person to person and at different ages. Additionally, individuals may respond differently to these methods.

Let's Summarize

• Determinants of Personality: The development of personality is influenced by several factors, including heredity, environment, learning, and socialization. Heredity plays a crucial role as it provides the genetic basis for traits such as physique, intelligence, and temperament. Environment, including physical factors like climate and terrain, also significantly impacts personality development. Learning is vital because it allows for the control and modification of personality patterns, ensuring positive personal and social adjustments. Socialization through agencies like family, peer groups, and schools is essential for developing a healthy personality.
• Moulding of Personality: Personality moulding starts early in life, with the foundational years being critical. Environmental sources of moulding, such as family, school, and peer groups, vary in importance across different age groups and individuals. There are two types of learning involved in personality moulding: outer-directed learning (child training) and inner-directed learning (identification).
• Role of Heredity and Environment: The debate over the relative importance of heredity and environment in personality development remains unresolved. Evidence suggests that heredity may be more crucial in some areas, while environment is more significant in others. Ultimately, both factors jointly shape an individual's personality.