Historical and Sociological Factors Affecting Administrative Systems | Public Administration Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Definition of Comparative Public Administration

• Comparative public administration refers to the study of administrative systems in different countries, examining their similarities and differences. Another definition of comparative public administration is the exploration of patterns and regularities in administrative actions and behaviors. It aims to assess the effectiveness of Classical Theorists' principles of administration (such as Fayol, Taylor, and Urwick) on a universal level, taking into account various political and administrative setups in both developing and developed countries, as well as their respective contexts. The goal is to develop a comprehensive theory of public administration through practical experiments, analysis, and the enhancement of existing literature and theories.
• Comparative public administration is a crucial field of study within public administration, as it aids in understanding administrative setups and their functioning in diverse settings and societies. It helps identify what works and why, facilitating the improvement of administrative systems to make them more efficient. Additionally, it contributes to the development of a robust and practical theory of public administration by incorporating practical experiments, analysis, and insights gained from comparative studies.

Evolution of Comparative Public Administration - Background

• Although comparative studies in administration can be traced back to ancient times when Aristotle sent scholars to study political systems in different parts of the world, comparative public administration gained prominence after Woodrow Wilson's essay in 1884. Wilson rightly emphasized the importance of comparing administrative systems in order to identify the strengths and weaknesses of one's own country. He recognized that administrative techniques and procedures are similar across different regions, making comparative studies a valuable learning tool.
• Initially, however, comparative public administration was not given much attention due to the prevailing focus on conceptualizing, structuring, and defining public administration as a priority. Theorists, administrators, and governments were primarily occupied with understanding their own administrative setups before embarking on comparisons with others. While this was being contemplated, the First World War erupted, diverting attention from comparative studies. After the war, with the establishment of the League of Nations and the emergence of many independent states, there was a growing need to understand the requirements of underdeveloped countries that had been colonized by imperial powers such as Britain. This led to a joint initiative by developed countries, under the United Nations, to support the development of these countries and rebuild their war-damaged economies. Additionally, the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union played a significant role, with both superpowers attempting to exert influence over world politics and economies.
• The United States took the lead in administrative studies and provided financial and technical assistance to developing nations, aiming to increase their market share and counter the spread of communism originating from the Soviet Union. Due to the lack of institutional and administrative capacities in Western countries to implement their post-World War II development plans, the United States became the center for these studies. The government, United Nations, private institutions, and corporations sponsored various technical assistance programs that enabled public administrators, public administration lecturers, and professionals to study the subject in depth, gain practical experience through international travel, and build a universal comparative theory of public administration. Noteworthy organizations that played a significant role in these efforts were the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) and the American Political Science Association (APSA).
• The Comparative Administration Group (CAG) was the first organization established in 1960, under the ASPA, with funding from the Ford Foundation. Its purpose was to study methods for improving public administration in developing countries, led by Fred W. Riggs. However, the group faced challenges in providing truly empirical assessments of administrative factors in society due to the complexity of the comparative approach it employed. Consequently, the studies were transferred back to the Department of Comparative Studies. Another significant event was the first Minnowbrook Conference held in 1968, chaired by Dwight Waldo, which emphasized the need for studying and analyzing comparative public administration do, which emphasized the need for studying and analyzing comparative public administration.

Approaches to the Study of Comparative Public Administration

• Ideal or Bureaucratic Approach: This approach focuses on studying bureaucratic specifications to draw conclusions and develop understanding. It involves analyzing the structures of organizations in terms of horizontal differentiation, vertical differentiation, span of control, and other factors. Procedures, rules, job specifications, and descriptions are examined to understand the framework of functioning. However, this approach has limitations as it provides general observations and does not explain the structures and their functions in society comprehensively.
• Structural-Functional Approach: Considered a popular approach, it was implemented by Fred W. Riggs in his study for developing models of society, environment, and ecology, which will be discussed later in this article. The structural-functional approach analyzes society by examining various structures and their functions to gain an understanding of their positioning and functioning. Structures can refer to government (political arrangements) as well as abstract systems such as societal values. Functions are viewed as the discharge of duties by these structures in society. One limitation of this approach is the need for accurately identifying the structures before analyzing them, especially in agrarian-transitional and fused-prismatic societies.
• Ecological Approach: Devised by Riggs, the ecological approach states that structures and their functions exist in an interdependent manner. Thus, when studying a particular structure and its function, its effects on other systems and their functions within society must also be analyzed. However, this approach is highly complex and challenging to apply.

Historical and Sociological Factors Affecting Administrative Systems

Careful observation reveals that historical events have played a significant role in shaping various administrative practices. While numerous factors come into play, some examples are outlined below:

• English Administrative System: The absence of a written constitution in England can be attributed to its historical monarchy. The country relied on conventions and traditions that had been in place for centuries.
• Indian Administrative System: India's administrative system incorporates reservations due to the country's diverse social and economic statuses. Historical events such as B.R. Ambedkar's policies and the British division of Hindus, Muslims, and other minorities in separate electorates have influenced the system. Social laws, such as the presence of panchayats, are derived from Indian society. Special attention is given to tribal welfare due to the existence of tribal communities. Many bureaucratic, political, and economic offices in India, such as the collector's office, police department, and civil services, are remnants of British influence. Revenue administration in India is a modern version inspired by historic Mughal practices.
• USA Administrative System: Historical and sociological factors have also shaped the American administrative system. For instance, the Civil War resulted in African American slaves being granted citizenship and the right to vote. The second civil rights movement, led by Martin Luther King Jr., led to the elimination of segregation and racial discrimination between black and white Americans.
• France Administrative System: The concept of Droit Administratif (Administrative Law) in France can be associated with the approach and functioning introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte. He established a centralized administration to improve efficiency. Historical events like the storming of the Bastille, fueled by economic crises, led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republican system. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen marked a significant step in framing France's constitution.

In summary, historical and sociological factors have had a profound impact on administrative systems in different countries. Understanding these influences is crucial in comprehending the development and functioning of public administration in diverse contexts.