Literary sources - UPSC PDF Download

What are Literary Sources?

Historians rely on two main categories of sources to gain insights into the past and comprehend the socioeconomic changes that have occurred over time: archaeological sources and literary sources. Literary sources, in particular, refer to written records. These materials offer valuable glimpses into the progress of human society as they demonstrate humanity's capacity for writing and provide more comprehensive narratives of historical events. Literary sources are relatively more recent in origin and are associated with a later stage of human development when organized societies began to emerge.

Dating literary sources

The use of manuscripts by historians presents them with a number of challenges when it comes to dating literary materials. During those times, there wasn't a typewriter, etc, so scribes manually copied documents. Copying manuscripts is not a simple task.

Types of Literary Sources

Literary sources encompass written records that are accessible in written form, presenting valuable historical information. These literary sources can be classified based on whether they provide a firsthand account of the events they describe or if they are interpretations and analyses of those original accounts. We will delve into various categories of literary sources in the following section:

• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Domestic Sources
• Foreign Sources
• Religious Sources
• Secular Sources
• Sangam Literary Sources
• Scientific Literary Sources

Primary Sources

These sources represent unaltered accounts of what actually occurred or was initially described, without any embellishment or judgment. It comprises fresh content or original materials that lay the groundwork for further research. Original concepts are presented, fresh breakthroughs are discussed, or contemporary information is shared in primary sources.

Secondary Sources

These sources provide a summary or analysis of primary sources. They frequently attempt to describe or characterize original sources. They frequently consist of works that analyze, interpret, restructure, or otherwise add value to an original source.

Domestic Sources

Resources that were written by people of our own country describing the social and religious context of the society then.
Examples of Domestic Literary Sources include:

• Kautilya's Arthashastra: It was somewhere around the 4th century B.C.E. It is a major theoretical treatise on statecraft. It reflects the administration and ethical code of conduct during the Mauryan Empire.
• Kalidasa’s work: The court poet Vikramaditya wrote about the societal condition of the Shunga dynasty and the Gupta period. He was regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist in Sanskrit literature.
• Aryabhatta’s work: Aryabhatta, the great mathematician who gave the world the numeral zero and popularised the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in the world, also did deep research in the field of astronomy. His documented work is evidence of technological and scientific developments in society since then.
• NatyaShastra of Bharat Muni: It is a book on dance, dramas, and musical theater, written in Sanskrit. It developed creative writing in India since the Maurya period. Sage Bharata Muni is credited with writing the book.
• Tholkappiyam: It is the oldest long piece of Tamil literature still in existence and the earliest existing Tamil grammar text. It is a thorough grammar work that also covers sutras on sentence form, the importance of context in language, spelling, morphology, phonology, etymology, semantics, and prosody.

Foreign Sources

Foreign Sources refer to those sources which were written or documented by foreign visitors describing the social and religious context from their point of view.
In antiquity, many immigrants from Greece, the Arab world, West Asia, and China visited India. These tourists left a lot of records of the events they witnessed. These foreign visitors had no allegiance to any local sovereign, thus their descriptions are objective and offer first-hand knowledge on the topics they covered. The incursion of Alexander gave several Greek and Roman adventurers and traders access to India. 

Romans and Greeks Accounts

• Herodotus: He is regarded as the world's first historian. He made mention of Indian combatants battling with Persians. when the Persians and Greeks were at war.
• Pliny: He discussed the commercial connections connecting Romans and Indians, as well as Indian flora and animals, in his work "Natural Historia."

Chinese Accounts

• Fa-Hien: He arrived in India in the fifth century AD, during the Gupta era. He was indeed a Buddhist monk who travelled to India in order to learn more and explore Buddhist historical sites. He wrote "Records of Buddhist Countries," a book that describes Northern India's civilization and culture during the Gupta era, during his 3 years of trip.
• I-tsing: He was a Buddhist monk who also shared insightful knowledge about Indian society, religion, and culture.

Arab Accounts

• Arab’s Sulaiman: In the ninth century A.D., he went to India. The kings of his period, Pal and Pratihar, were subjects of his writings.
• Albiruni: He is a philosopher from Iran. Mahmud Ghazni, the conqueror who sailed into India, accompanied Muhammad ibn Ahmad Al Biruni with him. During his 13 years in India, he travelled through the majority of the country and studied Indian and Sanskrit literature. In his work, "Taqeeq-e-Hind," he discussed the circumstances and culture.
• Al-Masudi: In the years 941 and 943 A.D., he lived in India for 2 years. In his writing, he discussed Rashtrakutas.

Religious Literary Sources

Religion served as the cornerstone of ancient world civilization. India wasn't a unique case. In light of this, there is a sizable amount of liturgical and authoritative literature from the many cults that were cultivated in past cultures. Along with the social, cultural, and political context of the era under consideration, they delved deeply into socialist philosophy.
The following are some religious literary sources: 

1. Vedic literature includes the Vedas and other Hindu religious texts that trace their origins to the Vedas. These literary sources give a detailed account of Aryan and Vedic society. Vedic literature is categorized as Shruti literature and Smriti literature.
Vedic literature consists of:

• Vedic Literature consists of four Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sam, and Atharva, which the Aryans produced. These Vedas were essentially collections of Aryan hymns dedicated to the gods, primarily representing natural forces. The Aryans believed that the Vedas, referred to as "Shrutis" and "a-paurusheya" (not created by humans), were heard rather than authored.
• Brahmanas were created with the purpose of instructing Vedic sacrificial rituals. Each Veda has its own Brahmana, like the Jaiminiya Brahmana of the Samaveda, the Aitareya Brahmana of the Rigveda, the Shapath of the Yajurveda, and the Gopath of the Atharvaveda.
• Aranyakas were developed to impart knowledge of Vedic religion, particularly focusing on sacrifices and mystic practices conducted in solitude. The Taiteriya Aranyaka is associated with the Yajur Veda, while the Aitareya Aranyaka is linked to the Rig Veda.
• Upanishads, derived from "to study while seated near one's teacher," aimed to convey the understanding of Vedic spiritualism. They delved into topics such as self-knowledge, the relationship between the self and God, the origin of the universe, and our role in the vast cosmos.
• Vedanga comprises six Hindu religious disciplines, anciently associated with learning the Vedas. These disciplines are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakaran, Nirukta, Chanda, and Jyotish.
• Shad Darshanas encompass various subjects, including philosophy, logic, the soul's connection with God, particles, Vedic rituals, the cosmic arrangement, and more.
• Sutras, in Indian literature and culture, refer to aphorisms, collections of aphorisms, or concise handbooks. They are found in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. These sutras were compiled around the 6th century BC and are categorized into Shrautsutras, Dharmsutras, and Grihyasutras, collectively known as Kalpasutras.
• Shruti Literature comprises scripts that were compilations of hymns passed down orally through generations, lacking specific authors. It includes the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
• Smriti, derived from Shruti literature, means "that which has been remembered" and can change over time. Smriti literature offers vivid accounts of events and was narrated or written by specific authors.
• Puranas consist of 18 major texts, classified according to the devotional cults prevalent in India during the 3rd and 4th centuries.

2. Buddhist Literature: Buddhist literature was mainly developed with the motive that commoners could read them. These are written in Pali and contain the preachings of Gautam Buddha. Buddhist literature shows the history of Buddhism and its royal patron like Ashoka.
This literature includes:

• Pitakas: Buddhist literature is a compilation of three books called Tripitakas meaning three baskets. These include:
  • Vinaya Pitaka: It contains the rules and regulations of the Buddhist Sangh.
  • Suttpitaka: It contains the teachings of Buddha.
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical aspect of Buddhism. In summary, these works provide a wealth of information about Buddhist principles and moral standards.
• Jatakas: The accounts of Buddha's earlier births are collected in the Jatakas. In order to help his followers with their issues, Buddha came up with a lovely way of using narratives from his personal experiences from his former lifetimes. The skeptical or problem follower would then derive solutions from these stories. 
• Dipvamsha and Mahavamsha: The Buddhist writings Dipvamsha and Mahavamsha originated in Sri Lanka. It contains details on various Buddhist scholars in addition to the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.
• Divyavadan: In Divyavadan This Buddhist text has Napali roots. In addition to illuminating northern dynasties from the Mauryan rulers to the Shunga era, it contains Buddhist tales.

3. Jain Literature: Jain literature is considered contemporary Buddhist literature. It gives important information in the reconstruction of the history of the doctrines of Jainism as well as facets of the cultural life of those times. Jain literature is compiled in Prakrit. One of the sacred books of Jainism is Agam. That contains the sayings and life realizations of Tirthankaras.
The Jain literature is divided into the following categories:

• Anga and Agam: These texts provide insights into Mahavir's philosophy. The Bhagavati Sutra offers a glimpse into Mahavir's life and achievements, while the Acharang Sutra outlines the behavioral guidelines for Jain monks.
• Philosophical Texts: This category includes works like Samaysar and Pravachansar, among others. These texts, primarily attributed to Acharya Kundakunda, delve into Jain spirituality and philosophical concepts.
• The Puranas: Jain Puranas draw inspiration from Vedic sagas and Puranas but have a primary focus on Jain philosophy. Examples include the Padmacharit, Maha-Purana, and Harivamsha Purana.
• Biographical Accounts: These texts include Jasahar-chariu, Bhadrabahu-Charita, Naykumar-chariu, and more. The Bhadrabhau-charita, for instance, sheds light on the historical context surrounding Mauryan King Chandragupta and his mentor, Jain Acharya Bhadrabhau.

Secular Literary Sources

These sources were not only contributed by Indians but also by some foreign visitors to the Indian subcontinent. Hence, these are categorized as domestic and foreign sources. We often refer to literature without any religious component as "secular literature”. In other respects, a text is made up of real-world items. These were the resources that taught us about the governance, laws and other aspects of a civilization.
Secular Literary Sources include:

• Histories: India was familiar with the writing of history. There were several historical writings available.
• Eulogies: The compositions known as eulogies were written by charan/bhat/poets at the court to honour the patron monarch. Although biassed, such material educates us about the king, his lineage and dynasty, his actions and policies, etc.
• Literature: This includes epics, dramas, poetry, and compilations and provides factual information about the economy, society, polity, etc of a time period.
• Epics: This includes the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, written by Vyasa and by Valmiki respectively. The revolution of Aryans across the Indian subcontinent, their interactions with local or native neighbourhoods and indigenous peoples, their political beliefs, establishments, social cultures and beliefs, forest indigenous peoples, their financial system, etc. are just a few of the vast ranges of information we learn from these epics.
• Dramas: Ashvaghosha's "Sariputta-prakaran" was regarded as the earliest drama. Then, a renowned "Natyshastra" the play was written by the scholar Bharat.
• Poetry: A focused cognitive consciousness of perception is evoked through poetry. Much more ancient than written language, poetry is the most ubiquitous and earliest form of art. The first poetry was spoken or sung using rhythmic and acoustic harmonies in ancient times.
• Compilations: These are essentially universal tales that are recounted to instill moral and ethical principles in the minds and hearts of people, particularly young children.

Sangam Literature Sources

• Sangam Literature: To understand the history of Southern India, we can turn to Sangam literature. The term "Sangam" signifies a gathering. This body of literature consists of poems that were presented during three assemblies by Tamil poets.
• Ecological Diversity: Notably, these poets gathered poems from various ecological regions within Southern India. These poems are essentially collections of folklore compiled by urban poets.
• Significant Works: Some important works within Sangam literature include Manimekhalai, Pattupattu, and Shilappadikaram. These texts provide valuable insights into the history and culture of Southern India.

Scientific Literature Sources

• Content of Treatises: The treaties primarily consisted of writings related to social philosophy and grammar. However, in the early centuries, there was a notable emergence of scientific works covering various subjects.
• Diverse Scientific Topics: Initially, these scientific works covered a range of topics such as symbology, research in agro-irrigation techniques, and advancements in medical technology.
• Scientific Thinking in Ancient India: Ancient India demonstrated a strong familiarity with scientific thought, leading to a substantial volume of scientific research during this period.
• Gupta Era: Particularly during the Gupta era, there was a significant flourishing of various sciences. This period witnessed advancements and contributions in multiple scientific fields.

Significance of Literary Sources

• Importance of Literary Sources: Literary sources hold great importance as they offer comprehensive insights into various aspects of historical civilizations. These sources provide in-depth knowledge regarding the politics, warfare, and administrative structures of different empires.
• Wide Range of Information: Literary sources cover a wide spectrum of subjects, including details about trade and commerce, religious rituals and beliefs, scientific advancements, cultural progress, and the historical role and status of women.
• Evolution Over Time: Through literary sources, we can trace the evolution of these aspects over time, understanding how they transformed and developed throughout history.
• Analysis for Historical Understanding: Analyzing these literary sources is not only essential for constructing an understanding of the past but also plays a crucial role in shaping our perspectives for a more informed and enlightened future.

Limitations of Literary Sources

• Reliability Concerns: Literary sources come with inherent limitations, primarily because their accuracy cannot be guaranteed. It is often challenging to ascertain whether the events described actually transpired as written or if they were influenced or distorted by the author's perspective.
• Limited Insights into Ancient Times: When it comes to the distant past, especially periods like the Stone Age, literary sources are largely unavailable. This means that we lack written records to provide insights into these ancient eras.
• Fragmentary Nature: Many literary sources that have survived through the ages exist in fragmented forms. This fragmentation poses the risk of crucial information being lost, making it difficult to obtain a comprehensive understanding of historical events.
• Focus on Prominent Figures: Literary sources typically emphasize the lives and actions of notable figures in society, often neglecting the perspectives and experiences of common people. This can result in an incomplete portrayal of historical events and societal dynamics.

Conclusion

Literary sources comprise written records that offer valuable insights into ancient societies. These sources are categorized into two main groups: domestic literature and foreign literature. Within these categories, some focus on religious aspects and are referred to as religious texts, while others provide information about the socioeconomic structure of society and are known as secular texts. Examples of important literary sources include those from the Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic civilization, Jain and Buddhist literature, among others. While these literary sources are invaluable for understanding the past, it's important to acknowledge their limitations, including the need for cautious interpretation due to potential inaccuracies and the presence of incomplete or missing fragments.