European States System - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• Absolutism refers to the formation of absolute monarchies in early modern Europe, following the collapse of medieval monarchies. These new monarchies were powerful nation-states, reliant on strong individual leaders. To solidify this, it was necessary to reduce the limitations on centralized governance previously imposed by the Church, feudal lords, and medieval customary law. By announcing absolute state authority against these old constraints, the new monarchs declared their own absolute authority. The most common justification for monarchical absolutism was that kings were God-given their power. These new national monarchs declared their authority in all aspects and often became heads of both church and state.
• European monarchies transformed into more powerful, efficient, and developed entities during the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This was necessary to overcome the problems of feudal monarchies and the damage of war, disease, and economic difficulties. Before 1453, European states were more feudal than sovereign, but after 1559 they were more sovereign than feudal. In a feudal state, the state's rights, such as the power to wage war, tax, and administer and enforce the law, were owned privately as legal and hereditary rights by a military landed aristocracy. The power balance between the monarch and the magnate, the royal lord, and the great vassal was the central feature of medieval monarchies.
• In the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Europe saw the rise of a different type of monarchy known as Absolutist Monarchies. These were absolutist and sovereign in nature. This transition was primarily a royal response to a significant general crisis that swept across Europe in the fourteenth century. This was brought on by the inefficiencies and internal conflicts in the feudal mode of production that prevailed in the Middle Ages, long wars, and the devastating outbreaks of the bubonic plague, or Black Death.
• The growing demand from feudal lords for revenue to fund military endeavors and increasingly lavish lifestyles added more strain to the feudal mode of production. This fourteenth-century feudal crisis was a pivotal moment dividing Europe's future.
• The terrors of constant wars ruined many European states. Christian princes were driving the Moors out of the Spanish peninsula. Germany saw sporadic civil wars. Central Europe was actively defending against Turkish invasions and suppressing the heresy of Bohemian subjects. France and England were involved in the destructive Hundred Years War.

Emergence of new absolute monarchies

• The new monarchies that evolved after the crisis were different from the earlier feudal monarchies since they were based on the principle of absolutism, which gave unrestricted powers to the government.
• Jean Bodin stated that the defining characteristic of a sovereign is his independence from the commands of others, and his ability to make, amend or repeal laws.
• Karl Marx described Absolutism as a system where power is centralized, with a standing army, bureaucracy, police, clergy, judiciary, national taxation, codified laws and a unified market serving the emerging middle class in their fight against feudalism.
• According to Friedrich Engels, Absolutism was a result of a balance between the old feudal nobility and the new urban bourgeoisie, although this theory does not apply to Eastern Europe where the bourgeoisie was suppressed.
• Perry Anderson believed that Absolutism was a way to maintain feudal domination and keep the peasant masses in their traditional social position despite the conversion of dues into money rent.
• Christopher Hill argued that Absolute monarchy was just a different version of feudal monarchy, with the ruling class remaining the same, but with a new form of state power influenced by the spread of commodity production and exchange.
• The new monarchs were clear about their desire for power and attempted to increase their power by exploiting the national sentiments of their subjects, and by improving their governance, soldiers and bureaucrats.
• There were significant differences between the Absolutist monarchies in Western and Eastern Europe due to differences in social systems and particularly in terms of serfdom and the bourgeoisie.
• While serfdom had disappeared in Western Europe, it was strengthened in Eastern Europe. The new bourgeoisie emerged in Western Europe but was suppressed in Eastern Europe.
• It's important to note that not all new monarchs aimed at building model nation-states. Some German and Italian states tried to establish proto nation-states on a regional basis, similar to what the monarchies along the Atlantic seaboard were doing.

Features of western absolutism

• The centralized monarchies in France, England, and Spain challenged the previous feudal system, leading to a decline in the power of feudal lords.
• The new monarchs, such as Louis XI in France, Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain, and Henry VII in England, developed a centralized Absolutist State.
• These Absolutist States focused on militarization and warfare, featuring professional armies with national recruits and foreign mercenaries.
• Feudal nobility was incorporated into these Absolutist States, often through the selling of bureaucratic offices, which also provided additional state revenue.
• By 1560, these monarchies had significantly advanced in terms of territorial unification, administrative centralization, and expansion of royal power.
• The “new monarchs” introduced innovations in bureaucracy, army, taxation, trade, and diplomacy, which laid the foundation for the great sovereign monarchies of the 17th and 18th centuries.
• The King's bureaucracy was the primary governmental structure, with the king ruling through his council and officers. This effectively centralized political power in the hands of the king and his officers.
• The permanent mercenary army was another distinctive feature of the new monarchies, signifying a shift from feudal lord ownership to monarchy control.
• In terms of trade, mercantilism was promoted to boost the economy and the power of the state. This involved the suppression of trade barriers within the national domain and encouragement of export goods.
• Diplomacy was another key aspect of the Absolutist State, with diplomatic practices being adopted across Europe in the 16th century.
• Renaissance rulers faced financial challenges, with expenses often exceeding incomes. They had to fund wars, diplomatic endeavors, royal officer salaries, royal household expenses, and the maintenance of courts and palaces.
• Various revenue sources were utilized, including rents and dues, custom duties and sales taxes, borrowing, selling bureaucratic offices, and direct taxation.
• In the seventeenth century, England transitioned towards limited monarchy, while France saw the growth of absolutism. These developments were largely influenced by the power of the Crown and the efficiency of the financial bureaucracy.

Features of eastern absolutism

• Feudal Nobility: Eastern Absolutism was a system created to protect the status of the feudal nobility from both foreign rivals and their own peasants. This system was highly centralized due to the integration of the feudal class into the state structure as a service nobility needed for military purposes. People who owned land were required to serve the state, or only those serving the state could possess land. The wealth and power of the nobility were derived from stable land ownership, not temporary state service.
• Consolidation of Serfdom: The Eastern Absolutist State also served to strengthen serfdom and eliminate any potential urban resistance. The feudal class used this system to control the mobility of the peasants. This struggle resulted in the mass abandonment of feudal lands by the peasants. The establishment of serfdom and Absolutism in Russia was closely linked, with serfdom being codified and state control over towns being implemented in 1648.
• International Pressures: Eastern Absolutism was shaped by the international political system it was part of, particularly the pressure from Western Absolutism, which prioritized conquest over commerce. To survive in a world of constant territorial warfare, eastern regions had to emulate the state structures of the west before they could transition to capitalism.
• Role of Wars: War played a greater role in shaping eastern Europe than the west. In Prussia, the state apparatus was a result of the ruling class's military machine, with the bureaucracy being an extension of the army. The threat of Swedish expansion was a major motivator for the construction of Prussian Absolutism.
• Absence of Bourgeoisie: Eastern Absolutism did not have a bourgeoisie, and bureaucratic positions were not sold. Instead, the feudal lords themselves engaged in trade and commerce. By the 18th century, Eastern Absolutism had surpassed Western Absolutism.

European absolutism – some case studies

To understand Absolutism, we need to study the ways in which Monarchs tried to establish their power over restraints exercised by the church, feudal lords, and medieval customary laws internally, and rival countries abroad. From an efficient and effective bureaucracy and administration for domestic control to war and diplomacy for ascendancy abroad and trade, taxation and socio-legal reforms to finance it all, the Absolutist Monarchies empowered themselves in different ways that suited them. This would be noticeable in the complex ways in which the kings, princes, cities and estates exercised, shared or competed for political authority better. It will help to study the making of the modern state-system in Spain, France, England and Sweden in Western Europe and Russia, Prussia and Austria in Eastern Europe.

Western Absolutism

1. Spain

• Prior to the 16th century, Spain was politically unstable due to centuries of Moorish invasions and religious conflicts among Christian kingdoms.
• Prominent leaders, such as Ferdinand of Castile, Alfonso of Aragon, and military commander Rodrigo Diaz, aimed to reclaim Spanish territory from the Moors.
• The union of Isabella, Queen of Castile and Ferdinand, King of Aragon in 1469 helped reduce internal conflicts among Christian kingdoms.
• King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella centralized royal power by limiting the authority of the nobility, controlling the legislature, managing internal affairs through Royal Councils, and appointing royal servants in place of noble members in key advisory roles.
• New royal officials called Corregidores were appointed to maintain law and order in Castile, which had been semi-independent.
• The monarchs reduced their dependence on the legislature by reclaiming previously alienated lands and properties and imposing a tax called the alcabala.
• Charles I, who was king from 1516-1556 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1519-1558, saw himself as the secular leader of Christianity. His reign saw the expansion of the royal council system, which helped increase the power of the Crown.
• Under Charles I, all Spanish institutions were geared towards supporting an ambitious foreign policy. He spent most of his reign in military conflicts, attempting to maintain a balance of power in Europe.
• Under the Hapsburg dynasty, Spain became a global superpower, controlling territories in the Caribbean, South America, and Italy.
• Charles I renounced his throne in 1556, leaving his empire in a state of division and near bankruptcy. His son, Philip II, took over and expanded the Spanish empire to its greatest extent.
• However, Philip II's reign also saw the decline of the Spanish economy due to huge debts from war expenses and the dependence on gold and silver wealth from American mines.
• Philip II was deeply involved in administration, focusing on justice, protection of the Church and the Inquisition, and eliminating heresy.
• Philip III's reign (1598-1621) was marked by a huge national debt and unresolved conflicts. The influx of silver from South America led to inflation and economic slowdown.
• The nobility regained power under Philip III as he delegated his powers to them, leading to the decline of the royal court and state.
• The last Hapsburg king, Charles II, was mentally and physically incapacitated, leading to a period of suffering for Spain. His death in 1700 marked the end of the Spanish Hapsburg dynasty and sparked the Spanish War of Succession.

2. France

• Charlemagne united western and central Europe in the classical era of the Roman Empire, but after his death, the Carolingian Empire broke up and the emperor's title was passed to German rulers in Eastern Europe.
• In the late tenth century, Hugh Capet established the Capetian dynasty of French kings, which ruled France for the next eight hundred years. The Capetians initially had nominal control over the various duchies of France, but gradually established a strong monarchy that ruled all duchies.
• The relationship between the Capetian kings and their most powerful vassals, the Dukes of Normandy, was critical in the development of Capetian France. The Dukes of Normandy became increasingly more powerful than their Capetian overlords.
• Philip II, also known as Philip Augustus, greatly expanded the French Empire and became the first ruler to style himself King of France. He defeated a coalition of English, German, and Flemish forces in the Anglo-French wars.
• Louis IX, one of the greatest medieval kings, made significant advances in royal power, establishing that church property in France was for the king's and realm's requirements, not to be plundered by Rome.
• Philip IV, also known as Philip the Fair, ruthlessly extended royal power and consolidated his control over towns, nobles, and the Church. His reign saw the establishment of a new model state manned by efficient and loyal bureaucrats.
• Louis XI laid the foundation for a strong monarchy by consolidating territorial unity and competent central administration. He confronted the threat from the Duchy of Burgundy, leading to the assimilation of the duchy and other parts of eastern France into the French kingdom.
• French Absolutism was a gradual progression towards a centralised monarchical state, culminating in the reign of Louis XIV, who fostered the growth of industry and reorganised the French army.
• Henry IV ended the French Wars of Religion with the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which established Catholicism as the official religion of France but also granted rights and freedoms to the Protestants. This marked the emergence of France as a major power in early modern Europe.
• Cardinal Richelieu, minister to Louis XIII, strengthened royal absolutism, defeated Huguenot revolts, promoted economic self-sufficiency, and created a strong navy. His ambitious and expensive foreign policy tripled government expenditure, leading to increased taxes and sparking provincial rebellions.

3. England

• England rose to power after the Norman conquest in 1066 when the Anglo-Saxon forces were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror. This marked a crucial point in Norman expansion, which spanned from the British Isles to southern Italy. By William's death in 1087, the English monarchy was stronger than the French monarchy for over two centuries.
• The death of Edward I in 1307 until the end of the Wars of the Roses in 1485 saw a weakening of royal authority due to political dissensions from the Hundred Years’ War and ineffective rulers who surrendered their authority to the nobility or Parliament. The War of Roses, a thirty-year civil war, ensued between rival factions of the royal family, the House of Lancaster and the House of York.
• At the end of the War of Roses in the late fifteenth century, England became a national monarchy under Henry VII of the Tudor dynasty. Henry VII, who reigned from 1485-1509, married Yorkist heiress Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, and dealt decisively with factional strife. He also took steps to curtail the nobles’ ability to interfere in the royal courts.
• Henry VII left a prosperous country with a well-filled treasury and re-established law and order in England after years of civil rebellion. His policies paved the way for his successors Henry VIII and Elizabeth I.
• Under Henry VIII, England enjoyed a prosperous society with solvent government finances. Henry VIII avoided risky military ventures and capitalized on the English Reformation to increase royal revenues by confiscating monastic property, thus creating a new class of nobles loyal to the Crown.
• After Henry VIII, Edward VI succeeded to the throne, followed by Mary, and then Elizabeth I in 1558. Elizabeth firmly established the Anglican Church and enhanced royal authority. Her reign was marked by suppression of Catholic activity, parliamentary criticism of government policies, and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.
• The Elizabethan Age was a period of wars, rebellions, and intense competition, but also a vibrant age of English culture, symbolized by the works of Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, Spenser, and others.
• The transition from the Tudor dynasty to the Stuarts in 1603 resulted in a new political situation. James I united Scotland and England, and the Parliament became the central locus of noble power.
• Charles I attempted to build an advanced Absolutism but was met with political and military failures, leading to the dissolution of the Parliament and eventually to the Civil War and a successful bourgeois revolution.
• Tensions escalated between the Parliament and King James II due to his pro-French, pro-Catholic policies and ambitions of becoming an Absolute Monarch. This led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the relegation of the Monarchy to a Parliamentary Monarchy after the passage of the Bill of Rights.

4. Sweden

• Absolutism in Sweden emerged rapidly, not due to internal socioeconomic factors like serfdom or the rise of mercantile capitalism, but as a result of a foreign invasion by Denmark. This distinguishes it from western and eastern versions of Absolutism.
• The Swedish social structure was stable because there were no significant threats from the aristocracy or the bourgeoisie. The balance of power between the monarch and aristocrats could shift depending on who had more support at the time.
• Swedish Absolutism operated best during periods of foreign expansion, with notable harmony between the monarchy and nobility during the reigns of certain royal generals.
• Key to Sweden's economic and military strength under Absolutism were its rich mineral resources, particularly iron and copper.
• Gustavus Vasa, a nobleman, overthrew the Danish rule in Sweden. He took several steps to establish a stable monarchy, including taking over church estates, exploiting silver mines, and centralizing the bureaucracy.
• Gustavus was able to accumulate a significant surplus without raising taxes much. His successors, however, struggled to maintain this equilibrium, leading to conflicts with the aristocracy.
• When Gustavus Adolphus, another nobleman, became monarch, the aristocracy regained its prominence in bureaucracy. The monarchy and aristocracy were integrated into a modern administrative system and a powerful army.
• Gustavus Adolphus also modernised the education system and levied heavy tolls on copper mines. He secured large Dutch loans against his country's mineral resources to fund his wars.
• Gustavus Adolphus expanded Sweden's territories through a series of conquests and treaties. His successor, Christina, significantly increased the ranks of the nobility but her profligacy led to a decrease in state income and increased dependence of the peasantry on the nobles.
• Charles X, who succeeded Christina, returned Sweden to its expansionist policies, but his conquests were largely undone by retaliations and a Danish assault.
• Charles XI reclaimed alienated lands and revenues, imposed higher taxes on the peasantry, and increased the powers of the king. His son, Charles XII, continued his autocratic rule but Sweden had overextended itself, leading to its eventual decline.
• After Charles XII's reign, the nobility took control and established a constitutional system. Gustavus III later restored Absolutism and the power of the monarch. In the final stages of Swedish Absolutism, there were attempts to curb the privileges of the nobility and create a more socially egalitarian society.

Eastern Absolutism

Eastern Absolutism Russia, Prussia and Austria in eastern Europe manifested social formations different from western Europe within the feudal mode of production. So, the Absolutism that evolved in eastern Europe was different from the west. 

1. Prussia

• Prussia, a symbol of German militarism and authoritarianism, began its existence outside of Germany. It was originally inhabited by Slavs who were related to Lithuanians and Latvians.
• The Teutonic Knights conquered the area in the 13th century, forcibly Christianising the inhabitants and bringing in German peasants to farm the land. By around 1350, the majority of the population was German.
• The Poles annexed part of Prussia in the following century, leaving the Knights with East Prussia. Meanwhile, Germans had also conquered the Brandenburg area to the west.
• Both Brandenburg and East Prussia fell under the control of the Hohenzollern family, who began a gradual rise to power in Europe, culminating in the First World War and the Kaiser's abdication in 1918.
• Despite its sparse population and lack of resources, Brandenburg-Prussia managed to thrive due to its political skill and audacity.
• Frederick William, ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia in the 17th century, faced the challenging task of integrating and defending his widely separated territories.
• Through a series of strategic alliances and military victories, Frederick William managed to expand his realm, solidify his authority, and establish a professional bureaucracy that allowed him to govern without estate participation.
• In 1701, Frederick III, Frederick William's successor, obtained the right to style himself as the King of Prussia, enabling Brandenburg to compete for pre-eminence in northern Germany.
• Frederick William I, also known as the "soldier-king", transformed Prussia into a military autocracy, building up a standing army of more than 80,000 men and implementing stringent fiscal policies to support it.
• The death of Charles VI, the Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor, in 1740 presented Frederick William with an opportunity to seize the territory of Silesia, thereby increasing Prussia's strategic advantage in Central Europe.
• Despite being economically underdeveloped, the monarchs of Prussia had a high degree of control over both the peasants and the nobility, enabling them to implement an effective bureaucratic government.
• The Prussian rulers also fostered the development of a new ruling class, composed of both the nobility and the middle class, who were responsible for overseeing the technical aspects of government.
• Despite its economic advances, Prussia remained an authoritarian state, with little regard for individual rights or freedoms.
• The success of the Prussian system is often exaggerated, with many overlooking the role of military conquest and plunder in financing its development.
• The Prussian system also faced the typical problems of a monarchical, centralized regime, such as unproductive spending and the potential for economic ruin.
• The 19th century saw the revival of Prussia, largely due to the elimination of mercantilist trade restrictions and the abolition of most features of the society of orders.

2. Austria

• The Habsburgs were the last of a series of royal houses that competed for control over the thrones of Central-Eastern and North Eastern Europe in the 14th through 16th centuries.
• Originally, they were minor German aristocrats from the Holy Roman Empire, owning lands in eastern Switzerland.
• Their rise to power began in 1273, when Count Rudolf of Habsburg was chosen as Holy Roman Emperor due to his perceived weakness and obscurity.
• Under Rudolf's rule, the Grand Principality of Austria was established as the primary Habsburg territory.
• Through strategic marriage alliances, the Habsburgs became Europe's wealthiest and most politically influential ruling house by the 16th century.
• After being expelled from their original home in Habichtsburg by Swiss peasantry in 1386, the Habsburgs came to be known as the House of Austria.
• Despite their power, the Habsburgs only intermittently held the imperial title over the 150 years following Rudolf's death in 1291.
• However, after Frederick III was elected in 1452, the Habsburg dynasty became dominant amongst the German nobility.
• The Habsburg Empire was a collection of territories united only by common rule by the Habsburgs, many of which were not part of the Holy Roman Empire.
• The Habsburgs' power increased significantly in 1453 when Emperor Frederick III confirmed a set of rights and privileges for them.
• Despite their ambition to strengthen the monarchy, the Habsburgs had to settle for less due to the complex structure of the Austrian monarchy.
• Emperor Leopold I (1658-1705), a Hapsburg and lifelong rival of Louis-XIV, managed to contain France's bid for dominance in European affairs.
• Leopold's reign was marked by warfare, especially against the Turks, whom he defeated in 1683 and 1690.
• To restore the Hungarian countryside after the war, Leopold encouraged Serb, Bohemian, and German peasants to resettle the lands.
• The Hapsburgs ruled over socially polarized lands, with a handful of incredibly rich Magnate families at the top and the majority of people living as serfs in the countryside.
• Leopold tried to reduce unpaid work by serfs, but his success was limited due to the control the landlord class had over the serfs.
• The Hapsburg state was characterized by a high degree of ethnic and religious diversity, which the Habsburgs manipulated to enhance the sense of difference between communities.

3. Russia

• The Tartar invasion of Russia from the mid 13th to late 15th century had varying impacts, sparking a debate among historians. Some argue the invasions were beneficial as they allowed the Moscow princes to centralize power, while others believe the Tartars brought an inferior culture compared to the Russians.
• The Moscow princes utilized their geographic position and strategic marriages to expand their territories and power. Following the end of the Tartar attacks, trade was reopened which further strengthened their position.
• Ivan III, one of the Moscow princes, declared his intention to regain lands lost to the Tartars and Poles. He also used a religious appeal to strengthen his position, championing Orthodoxy against Catholic Poles and Moslem Tartars.
• Ivan III initiated the pomest’e system, which redistributed land from the aristocracy to a new military-service class. This system required compulsory military service and led to the legal enserfment of the Russian peasantry.
• Ivan III's successor, Tsar Ivan IV, continued to centralize power and modernize the military. He annexed the Khanate of Astrakhan, further diminishing Tartar power in the east.
• The Romanov dynasty began in 1613 with the election of Michael Romanov as Tsar. This dynasty continued until the Russian Revolution of 1917. During this time, serfdom became a foundational aspect of Russian society.
• Peter the Great further centralized power, making service to the state universal. He introduced a new ranking system within the aristocracy, subordinated the Church to the State and started an industrialization effort.
• Catherine II, or Catherine the Great, became Tsarina in 1762. She introduced a new education system, secularized Church lands, and promoted mercantilism. She also faced multiple uprisings during her reign, the most dangerous of which was led by Emelyan Pugachev in 1773.
• Despite internal challenges, Russia had international successes under Russian Absolutism, becoming the main initiator and beneficiary of the partition of Poland and withstanding the French attack during the Napoleonic Wars.
• The structure of the Tsarist state following the Vienna Settlement in 1815 was unique in Europe. It was officially proclaimed as an Autocracy, and a feudal hierarchy was cemented into the state system itself.