Agrarian Class Structure | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The agrarian class structure in India is a multifaceted construct shaped by historical landownership patterns, deeply ingrained caste systems, and intricate social hierarchies. Throughout India's history, the rural society has been distinctly compartmentalized into various agrarian classes, primarily determined by their ownership and access to land, which serves as the backbone of agricultural production and livelihoods. In this article, we delve into the intricate details of the agrarian order in India, shedding light on its historical evolution and the challenges it presents.

History

• The historical agrarian class system in India, consisting of landlords, peasants, and laborers, has ancient origins and has remained relatively unchanged for centuries.
• This system is rooted in the varna system, with upper castes like Brahmins typically not engaged in agriculture, while lower castes and peasant castes made up the majority of the agrarian classes. Even among peasants, there were social hierarchies, with some holding higher status than the actual laborers.
• In the Vedic era, the agrarian class structure was straightforward, with Kshatriyas as landowners, Vaisyas as peasants, and Shudras as farm laborers, along with non-caste tribes working as agricultural laborers.
• During the Mauryan Empire, peasants occupied the lowest rung, facing high revenue demands and forced labor for the state and landowners, with little land ownership rights.
• In the medieval period, the agrarian class structure became more rigid, with powerful landlords such as zamindars and Deshmukhs controlling vast lands. Peasant castes included cultivators and tenant farmers, while lower castes and tribes mainly performed agricultural labor.
• The zamindari system during Mughal and British rule further solidified the agrarian class structure, although some peasant castes also rose to become powerful zamindars. The actual tillers remained poor laborers with minimal land rights.
• The colonial period had a detrimental impact on peasants and laborers, as high taxes and revenue demands impoverished them, and British policies stripped them of land ownership, turning them into tenants of absentee landlords.
• During the national movement, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi advocated for peasant rights, but the economic conditions of agricultural classes remained largely unchanged.
• After independence, land reforms aimed to redistribute land from large landlords to tillers, but they were weakly and unevenly implemented, leaving the agrarian class structure largely intact.
• The Green Revolution of the 1970s boosted agricultural production but favored wealthy farmers, making it challenging for small and marginal farmers to benefit, while agricultural laborers remained largely unaffected.
• Poverty remains widespread among agrarian classes, especially agricultural laborers, due to factors like lack of land ownership, limited access to credit, market connections, and fair wages. The situation is even more dire for women agricultural workers.
• While recent years have seen progress through welfare programs and loan waivers, the agrarian class structure in India continues to be highly unequal, with land concentration among wealthy farmers increasing, while landless laborers remain the most marginalized group.

Dynamics Of Agrarian Class Structure In India

India's agricultural economy has traditionally been dominated by three main classes - landlords, peasants and agricultural labourers. Each class plays an important role in India's agricultural production but also differs regarding asset ownership, income levels and social status.

Landlords

• Landlords are the highest social class in India's rural landscape, primarily deriving income from leasing out their agricultural land to sharecroppers or tenants.
• Historically, big landlords known as zamindars and Deshmukhs held vast land and wealth, but this class has diminished over time.
• Many landlords are not directly involved in agriculture and depend on tenant rent, despite their high social status.
• Challenges faced by landlords include rent payment issues, increasing land acquisition, and threats from land reforms that have led to the loss of land for some.

Peasants

• Peasants comprise two main categories: owner cultivators and tenant farmers.
• Owner cultivators own and work on their land, with most being small or marginal farmers holding less than 2 hectares of land.
• They often struggle with small landholding sizes, limited access to capital, and difficulties accessing markets.
• Tenant farmers, on the other hand, lease land from landlords, either through oral agreements with rent paid in kind or written agreements with cash rent.
• Tenant farmers face insecurity of land tenure and have limited rights regarding crops and trees on leased land.
• Challenges for peasants include high-interest rates, delayed loan waivers, and the risk of falling into a debt trap due to rising input costs and crop losses.

Agricultural Labourers

• Agricultural labourers form the lowest stratum in rural India, typically working in the fields of landlords and peasant farmers for wages.
• Most of them belong to Scheduled Castes, Tribes, and Other Backward Classes and often come from landless households.
• They are usually employed on a daily or seasonal basis, facing low bargaining power and receiving wages below government-mandated minimums.
• Women make up the majority of this class and face additional wage discrimination, while child labor is also prevalent.
• Agricultural laborers lack job security, social benefits, and access to credit, education, and healthcare.
• Poverty, malnutrition, and a lack of land ownership keep them trapped in a cycle of deprivation.

Agrarian Structure Caste And Class In Rural India

The social structure of rural India is intricately woven with the dynamics of caste and class, primarily driven by land ownership and occupation.

Caste System

• The caste system is a fundamental aspect of Indian rural life, organizing villages into hierarchical divisions based on birth into specific endogamous groups.
• Castes dictate a person's occupation, social status, and social interactions within the community.
• Higher castes, like Brahmins, are considered 'pure' and often hold positions of religious and ritual importance, enjoying elevated social standing.
• Lower castes are typically engaged in agricultural and menial occupations, often labeled as 'impure' in the traditional social hierarchy.

Land Ownership

• Land is a crucial economic resource in rural areas, and ownership of land plays a pivotal role in determining one's social class and influence.
• The class structure in rural India is largely shaped by the combination of caste and land ownership. Landlords constitute the upper class, wielding significant power and control over large landholdings.
• These landlords exert dominance over landless laborers, who typically come from lower castes, forming the lower class in this agrarian structure.

Evolving Dynamics

• While historically, caste and land ownership were the primary determinants of the agrarian class structure, economic changes are gradually eroding the rigidity of caste hierarchies.
• The influence of traditional landlordism is on the decline, and market forces and economic power are becoming more significant factors in shaping rural class distinctions.
• However, achieving full equality remains a distant goal, and there are still disparities in land ownership and economic opportunities among different caste groups.

Views Of Different Sociologists On Agrarian Class Structure In India

Various sociologists have provided valuable insights into the agrarian class structure in India, shedding light on the complexities of rural communities at different points in time:

• M.N. Srinivas:
  • Identified four main castes in villages: Brahmins, rich landowners, service castes, and scheduled castes.
  • Rich landowners, predominantly Kshatriyas, were the farm elite and owned the majority of land.
  • Service castes, like Vaishyas, played various supporting roles in farming.
• L.S.S O'Malley:
  • Studied Bengal in the 1900s and observed a simpler division: owners and non-owners.
  • Owners included zamindars, permanent tenants, and buyers, with zamindars owning the most land.
  • Non-owners comprised under-tenants, bargadars, and farm workers, primarily working on farms.
• Irawati Karve:
  • Conducted research in Maharashtra in the 1950s and identified three farm castes.
  • Rich landowning castes, such as Patils, owned substantial land and held high social status.
  • Small landowners had less power and wealth compared to Patils, while landless workers were mainly from scheduled castes and tribes.
• Mckim Marriot:
  • Conducted extensive village studies in the 1950s and categorized castes into different class positions based on land ownership.
  • Landowners occupied the top position, followed by castes with less land ownership and lower social status.
  • Castes at the bottom were landless workers who depended on upper castes for employment and wages.
• Louis Dumont:
  • Examined agrarian social divisions through the lens of purity and pollution.
  • High castes, who owned more land, considered themselves pure, while lower castes, engaged in what were perceived as "dirty" jobs, were seen as impure.
  • The combination of land ownership and caste ideas structured farm-class relations.
• André Béteille:
  • Studied Tamil Nadu in the 1970s and noted a shift in the agrarian landscape.
  • Observed a reduction in traditional landlordism and the emergence of new forms of land ownership, such as private property and corporate entities.
  • Suggested that economic power began to play a more significant role in structuring agrarian classes, replacing the rigid caste hierarchy.

Conclusion

In summary, the studies of the agrarian class structure in India reveal a historical foundation built upon caste and land ownership. The dominance of rich landowning castes characterized the rural elite, while lower castes often found themselves engaged in farm labor. However, as economic and social transformations have taken hold, the traditional caste-based hierarchy has been shifting.