Science & Technology - 5 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Evolution of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes

Context

Recently, it was found that evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes can answer the question of how complex cells with nuclei and organelles emerged.

•  The existing ‘theory of endosymbiosis’suggests that eukaryotes evolved from a symbiotic relationship between an ancient archaeon (a primitive group of microorganisms that thrive in extreme habitats) and a bacterium.

What are Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?

• Prokaryotes: They are organisms that lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
  • Their genetic material, typically a circular DNA molecule, is present in the cytoplasm without being enclosed within a nuclear membrane.
  • Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeon.
  • Key features include small, simple cells without a nucleus or organelles.
• Eukaryotes: are organisms that have cells containing a well-defined nucleus enclosed within a membrane.
  • Eukaryotic cells have a variety of membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and a complex network of internal membranes.

About the Evolution

• Endosymbiosis is a process where “one organism lives inside another and both benefit from the relationship.”
• The endosymbiotic theory suggests that eukaryotes evolved from a small archaeon engulfing a bacterium.
• The archaeon protected the bacterium and provided a stable environment, while the bacterium supplied energy to the archaeon.
• Over time, they became dependent on each other and formed a new type of cell called a eukaryote.
• The engulfed bacterium became the mitochondrion, which produces energy for the cell.
• In plants, another endosymbiotic event occurred with a cyanobacterium becoming the chloroplast, responsible for photosynthesis.
• This symbiotic relationship allowed eukaryotes to grow larger, become more complex, and adapt to different environments.

Significance of the evolution

• Mitochondria in eukaryotic cells and chloroplasts in plant cells have evolved from free-living bacteria.
• These organisms are found in a geological formation where geothermally heated water is forced out of a ridge in the Atlantic Ocean floor at a depth of 2400 meters below sea level.

Chandrayaan-3

Context

With the launch of Chandrayaan-3, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is embarking to achieve a successful soft landing on the moon.

• India aims to become the fourth country in the world to achieve this feat, joining the ranks of the United States, Russia, and China.

What is Chandrayaan-3 Mission?

• About:
  • Chandrayaan-3 is India's third lunar mission and second attempt at achieving a soft landing on the moon's surface.
  • The mission took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) in Sriharikota on July 14, 2023, at 2:35 pm.
  • It consists of an indigenous Lander module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and a Rover with an objective of developing and demonstrating new technologies required for Inter planetary missions.
• Mission Objectives of Chandrayaan-3:
  • To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on Lunar Surface
  • To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon and
  • To conduct in-situ scientific experiments.
• Features:
  • The six payloads on the Vikram lander and rover Pragyan remain the same as the Chandrayaan-2 mission.
  • The scientific payloads on the lander aim to study various aspects of the lunar environment. These payloads include studying lunar quakes, thermal properties of the lunar surface, changes in plasma near the surface, and accurately measuring the distance between Earth and the moon. 
• 
  
  • The propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 features a new experiment called Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE).
    • SHAPE aims to search for smaller planets with potential habitability by analyzing reflected light.
• Changes and Improvements in Chandrayaan-3:
  • The landing area has been expanded, providing flexibility to land safely within a larger designated area.
  • The lander has been equipped with more fuel to enable longer-distance travel to the landing site or alternate locations.
  • The Chandrayaan-3 Lander has solar panels on four sides, instead of only two in Chandrayaan-2.
  • High-resolution images from the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter are used to determine the landing location, and physical modifications have been made to enhance stability and sturdiness.
  • Additional navigational and guidance instruments are on board Chandrayaan-3 to continuously monitor the Lander’s speed and make the necessary corrections.
    • This includes an instrument called Laser Doppler Velocimeter, which will fire laser beams to the lunar surface to calculate the Lander’s speed.
• Launch and Timeline:
  • The LVM3 M4 launcher has been successfully utilized to launch Chandrayaan-3
    • Around 16 minutes after the LVM-3 lifted off, the spacecraft separated from the rocket. It entered into an elliptic parking orbit (EPO).
  • Chandrayaan-3's journey is estimated to take approximately 42 days, with a landing scheduled for August 23, 2023 at the lunar dawn.
  • The lander and the rover will have a mission life of one lunar day (about 14 Earth days) as they work on solar energy.
    • The landing site for Chandrayaan-3 is near the lunar south pole.
      

What is the Importance of Landing Near the Lunar South Pole?

• Historically, spacecraft missions to the Moon have primarily targeted the equatorial region due to its favorable terrain and operating conditions.
  • However, the lunar south pole presents a vastly different and more challenging terrain compared to the equatorial region.
• Sunlight is scarce in certain polar regions, resulting in perpetually dark areas where temperatures can reach to -230 degrees Celsius.
  • This lack of sunlight and extreme cold pose difficulties for instrument operation and sustainability.
• The lunar south pole offers extreme and contrasting conditions that pose challenges for humans but it make them potential repositories of valuable information about the early Solar System.
  • It is crucial to explore this region which could impact future deep space exploration.

What is India’s Other Chandrayaan Missions?

• Chandrayaan-1:
  • India's lunar exploration missions began with Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, which aimed to create a three-dimensional atlas of the moon and conduct mineralogical mapping.
    • Launch Vehicle: PSLV – C11.
  • Chandrayaan-1 made significant discoveries, including the detection of water and hydroxyl on the lunar surface.
• Chandrayaan-2: Partial Success and Discoveries:
  • Chandrayaan-2 consisted of an Orbiter, Lander, and Rover, with the goal of exploring the lunar south pole.
    • Launch Vehicle: GSLV MkIII-M1
  • Although the lander and rover crashed on the moon's surface, the Orbiter successfully collected data and found signatures of water at all latitudes.

Types of Moon Missions

• Flybys: These missions involve spacecraft passing near the moon without entering its orbit, allowing for observations from a distance.
  • Examples include Pioneer 3 and 4 by the United States and Luna 3 by the USSR.
• Orbiters: These spacecraft enter lunar orbit to conduct prolonged studies of the moon's surface and atmosphere.
  • Chandrayaan-1 and 46 other missions have utilized orbiters.
• Impact Missions: Extensions of orbiter missions, impact missions involve instruments making an uncontrolled landing on the lunar surface, providing valuable data before being destroyed.
  • Chandrayaan-1's Moon Impact Probe (MIP) followed this approach.
• Landers: These missions aim for a soft landing on the moon's surface, allowing for close-quarter observations.
  • Luna 9 by the USSR was the first successful landing on the moon in 1966.
• Rovers: Rovers are specialized payloads that detach from landers and move independently on the lunar surface.
  • They gather valuable data and overcome the limitations of stationary landers. Chandrayaan-2's rover was called Pragyan( same name is retained for Chandrayaan-3 as well).
• Human Missions: These missions involve the landing of astronauts on the moon's surface.
  • Only NASA has achieved this feat, with six successful landings between 1969 and 1972.
  • NASA's Artemis III, planned for 2025, will mark humanity's return to the moon.

Treatment for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Context

• Researchers in India are working on developing an affordable treatment for a rare and incurable genetic disorder called Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy with over 5 lakh cases in the country.
  • The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Jodhpur has established a research centre for DMD in collaboration with Dystrophy Annihilation Research Trust (DART), Bengaluru and the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) Jodhpur.
  • The centre aims to develop affordable therapeutics for this rare and incurable genetic disorder.

About Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• The most common and fatal type of muscular dystrophy, marked by progressive muscle degeneration and weakness due to alterations of a protein called “dystrophin” that helps keep muscle cells intact.
• The condition is predominantly seen in boys, but in rare cases, it can also affect girls.
• The current therapeutic options available to treat DMD are minimal and highly expensive treatment with costs shooting up to Rs 2-3 crore per child a year and are mostly imported from abroad, accelerating dosing costs and putting them out of reach for most families.
• DMD is an X-linked recessive muscular dystrophy affecting roughly one in 3,500 boys, which causes gradual loss of muscle tissue and function eventually leading to wheelchair dependency at approximately the age of 12 years, requirement for assisted ventilation at approximately the age of 20 years and eventually premature death.
• Currently, there is no cure for DMD, but improvements in integrative treatment can slow down the disease progression and thereby, extend the life expectancy of DMD patients.
• Patients with DMD have different forms of mutations at varying positions of the protein, resulting in the production of functionally compromised dystrophin ORF.
• Muscle weakness is the principal symptom of DMD.
  • It can begin as early as age 2 or 3, first affecting the proximal muscles (those close to the core of the body) and later affecting the distal limb muscles (those close to the extremities).
  • Usually, the lower external muscles are affected before the upper external muscles.
  • The affected child might have difficulty jumping, running, and walking.
• Other symptoms include enlargement of calves, a waddling gait, and lumbar lordosis (an inward curve of the spine). Later on, heart and respiratory muscles are affected as well.
• Progressive weakness and scoliosis result in impaired pulmonary function, which can eventually cause acute respiratory failure.

Antisense Oligonucleotide (AON)

• The researchers are working on affordable therapeutics for DMD and enhance the efficacy of Antisense Oligonucleotide (AON)-based therapeutics.
• The AON-based therapeutics’ idea is to hide or mask specific exons (a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule containing information coding for a protein) in a gene sequence.
• In DMD patients, one or more exons can be masked with specific molecules called AON or molecular patches.

New Diarrhoea Causing Parasite: Entamoeba moshkovski

Context

The recent three-year surveillance study by the National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED) reveals the emergence of Entamoeba moshkovskii (E. Moshkovskii) as a leading pathogen causing diarrhoea outbreaks in the Kolkata region.

• The previously non-pathogenic amoeba, Entamoeba moshkovskii, has now become the primary cause of amoebic infections, surpassing the once dominant pathogen, E. histolytica.

What are the Key Findings of the Study?

• Prevalence of Entamoeba moshkovskii:
  • The study found that over 3% of patients with diarrhoea were infected with E. moshkovskii, making it the leading cause of amoebic infections in humans in Kolkata.
• The decline of E. histolytica:
  • Infections caused by E. histolytica, the previous predominant amoeba pathogen, were decreasing, while E. moshkovskii was taking its place.
• Unique Seasonal Pattern:
  • Unlike E. histolytica, which usually peaked during the wet season and decreased during the dry season, E. moshkovskii infections in Kolkata exhibited two distinct infection peaks coinciding with the summer and post-fall seasons.
• Age Predominance:
  • E. moshkovskii infections were most prevalent in children aged 5-12 years.
• Pathogenic Potential:
  • The study indicated that E. moshkovskii may act as a "potential" pathogen, causing diarrhoea and gastrointestinal disorders, rather than solely being a commensal of the human gut.
• Molecular Identification:
  • Due to the morphological similarities between E. histolytica and E. moshkovskii, PCR-based molecular identification was used to differentiate between the two.
    • E. moshkovskii was identified in over 50% of diarrhoea cases caused by amoebic parasites.

What is Entamoeba moshkovskii?

• About:
  • It belongs to the same genus as E. histolytica but has distinct genetic and biochemical traits.
  • Originally isolated from sewage in Moscow in 1941.
  • Found in soil, water, and animals.
• Symptoms:
  • Causes problems like diarrhea, tummy pain, fever, and dehydration.
  • It can damage the intestines, leading to ulcers, bleeding, or even serious issues like infections in the liver.
• Transmission:
  • People can get infected by eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water.
  • Direct contact with poop can also spread the infection.
• Diagnosis Challenges:
  • Looks like Entamoeba histolytica under a microscope, so it's hard to tell them apart.
  • Special tests like PCR or DNA sequencing are needed for accurate identification.
• Treatment:
  • Treating infections caused by Entamoeba moshkovskii can be tricky.
  • The usual drugs used for amoebic infections may not work well.
  • More research is needed to find the best treatment options.

Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever

Context

As Europe faces a severe heatwave and wildfires, the rising temperatures have also increased the risk of transmission of viruses that are usually confined to warmer regions. One of these viruses is the Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF), a tick-borne infection that has a high fatality rate, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).

Details

• A deadly tick-borne disease that usually affects warmer regions is spreading across Europe as the continent faces a heatwave and wildfires, experts warn. The disease, known as Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF), is caused by a virus that can be transmitted by ticks or through contact with infected blood or body fluids.
• The first death from CCHF in Europe occurred in Spain in 2016. Since then, more cases have been reported in Spain, Russia, Turkey, and the UK.
  • Horizon, a magazine that covers European Union-funded research, reports that "Scientists are now warning that CCHF, which can kill between 10% and 40% of patients, is spreading northward and westward in Europe."
• In India, one person died of CCHF last month in Gujarat, the state that accounts for most of the country's cases of this disease.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) says that CCHF has a fatality rate of 10% to 40% and there is no specific treatment or vaccine available.

Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF)

About

• Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a serious infectious disease that affects humans and animals.
• It is transmitted by ticks that carry the CCHF virus, which belongs to the Bunyaviridae family of viruses. The CCHF virus can cause outbreaks of severe bleeding and organ failure, with a high risk of death.
• CCHF is found in many regions of the world, including Africa, the Balkans, the Middle East and Asia. The main areas where the disease occurs are those where the ticks of the genus Hyalomma live.
  • These ticks feed on a variety of wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and ostriches. The animals do not show any signs of illness, but they can carry the virus in their blood for a short time after being bitten by an infected tick. This allows the virus to spread from one tick to another or from an animal to a human.

 How do Humans get infected with CCHF?

• The main source of CCHF infection is the bite of an infected tick. Ticks are small blood-sucking parasites that live on animals such as cattle, sheep, goats and hares. They can also attach themselves to humans who come into contact with infected animals or vegetation.
• People can also get infected with CCHF by handling or slaughtering infected animals, or by consuming their raw milk or meat. In addition, people can catch the disease from other people who are already sick with CCHF, by touching their blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids.

What are the symptoms of CCHF?

• The symptoms of CCHF usually appear within 1 to 13 days after exposure to the virus. They include:
  • Fever
  • Headache
  • Muscle and joint pain
  • Nausea and vomiting
  • Diarrhoea
  • Stomach pain
  • Sore throat
  • Red eyes
  • Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
  • Bleeding from the nose, gums, skin or internal organs
• Some people may develop severe complications such as shock, kidney failure, liver failure or coma.
• The death rate of CCHF can range from 10% to 40%, depending on the severity of the infection and the quality of medical care.

How is CCHF diagnosed and treated?

• CCHF can be diagnosed by testing blood samples for the presence of the virus or its antibodies. However, this requires specialized laboratory equipment and trained staff, which may not be available in some areas where CCHF occurs.
• There is no specific treatment or cure for CCHF. The main goal of treatment is to provide supportive care to relieve the symptoms and prevent complications. This may include:
  • Fluid and electrolyte replacement
  • Blood transfusion
  • Oxygen therapy
  • Antibiotics for secondary infections
  • Painkillers and anti-inflammatory drugs
• Patients with CCHF should be isolated and treated in a hospital with strict infection control measures. Health workers and caregivers should wear protective clothing and gloves, and dispose of contaminated materials safely.

How can CCHF be prevented?

• There is no vaccine available for either people or animals to prevent CCHF. The best way to prevent CCHF is to avoid exposure to the virus. This can be done by:
  • Wearing long sleeves, pants, hats and shoes when outdoors in areas where ticks are present.
  • Applying insect repellents on skin and clothing.
  • Inspecting yourself and your clothing for ticks after being outdoors, and removing them carefully.
  • Avoiding contact with sick or dead animals, especially those that have signs of bleeding.
  • Cooking animal products thoroughly before eating them.
  • Practising good hygiene and washing your hands frequently.
  • Using barrier methods such as condoms during sexual intercourse with someone who has or may have CCHF.
  • Seeking medical attention as soon as possible if you develop symptoms of CCHF after being in a risk area.

Climate Change and the Spread of Diseases

About

• Climate change is not only affecting the environment but also the health of humans and animals. One of the consequences of climate change is the increased risk of infectious diseases, especially those transmitted by vectors such as ticks, mosquitoes, and fleas. These vectors can carry pathogens that cause diseases such as Lyme disease, malaria, dengue fever, Zika virus, and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF).
• According to the World Health Organization (WHO), climate change is expected to alter the distribution and abundance of these vectors, as well as their host animals and plants. This can lead to changes in the transmission patterns and geographic range of the diseases they carry. For example, as temperature patterns are disrupted, pathogens are thriving in geographies that traditionally had a climate hostile to them.
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says climate change contributes to the spread of diseases in multiple ways, including warmer temperatures expanding the habitat of ticks and other insects and giving them more time to reproduce; the habitat offered by water changing; and animals moving to newer areas and people coming into contact with them.

These changes pose a serious threat to public health and require coordinated action from governments, health authorities, researchers, and communities.

Some of the possible actions include:

• Monitoring and surveillance of vector-borne diseases and their vectors.
• Developing and implementing effective prevention and control strategies.
• Strengthening health systems and emergency preparedness.
• Raising awareness and educating the public about the risks and prevention measures.
• Promoting research and innovation to develop new tools and interventions.
• Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the effects of climate change.

Conclusion

• Climate change and the spread of diseases are two interrelated global challenges that pose serious threats to human health and well-being. It affects the distribution and transmission of infectious diseases, such as malaria, dengue, and cholera, by altering the habitats and behaviours of their vectors and hosts. It also increases the risk of emerging and re-emerging diseases, such as COVID-19, by disrupting the ecological balance and creating favourable conditions for zoonotic spillovers. Therefore, it is imperative to adopt a holistic and multidisciplinary approach to address these complex and interconnected issues and to promote adaptation and mitigation strategies that can enhance the resilience and sustainability of human and natural systems.

Steel Slag Road Technology

Context

• Surat has become the first city in the country to get a processed steel slag (industrial waste) road built as part of a joint-venture project by the CSIR, CRRI, Union Ministry of Steel, NITI Ayog, and ArcelorMittal-Nippon Steel (AM/NS), at Hazira. 

About the Road

• It is a six-lane public road. The construction began around a year ago by converting mounds of steel waste into steel slag aggregate. 
• The road is now being used by heavy-duty vehicles of multinationals located in the industrial estate on the outskirts of Surat.
• This project falls under the initiative of the Waste to Wealth and Clean India Campaign.
• Process:
• The slag is generated from a steel furnace burning at around 1,500-1,600 degree centigrade in the form of molten flux material as an impurity. 
• The molten material is poured into the slag pits for cooling as per the customised procedure and further processed to develop stable steel slag aggregates, with “better material properties in place of the natural aggregate commonly used in road constructions
• Benefits:
  • The utilisation of processed steel slag in road construction paves the way for sustainable use of waste and reduces the reliance on perishable natural aggregates. 
  • The construction cost of the processed steel slag road is 30 per cent cheaper than roads built from natural aggregates. 
  • The thickness of the road is also 30 per cent lesser than normal ones, while the durability is much longer due to the utilisation of steel slag. 
  • The lifespan of a cement or concrete road is over 30 years while that of bitumen and steel slag road is around 15 years.
  • These roads are also much more durable during the monsoon. 
  • It is in line with India’s commitment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal No. 9 for building resilient infrastructure through inclusive and sustainable industrialization and green technologies.