Religion and Morality | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

The Relationship Between Religion and Morality

Religion encompasses human responses to ultimate concerns, spanning cognition, conation (will or intention), and affection. These three aspects are intertwined and often coexist within the human experience. Throughout history, religion has evolved alongside morality and art, and the earlier stages of civilization saw these dimensions deeply entwined. However, as thought progressed, they became relatively distinct but still retained connections. In contemporary times, they tend to function autonomously, with mantras like "Art for art's sake" and "Morality for morality's sake."

Religion and Morality: A Complex Relationship

The connection between religion and morality has been a topic of debate, leading to various perspectives:

1. Inseparable and Interdependent: Some argue that religion and morality are inseparable and interdependent. Higher religions, such as Judaism and Christianity, often embody moral codes, emphasizing the importance of ethical conduct.
2. Independence of Religion: In contemporary thinking, morality is often regarded as an autonomous discipline, separate from religion. Morality's principles and obligations can stand alone.
3. Morality as an Autonomous Discipline: Morality is viewed as an independent field of study and practice, capable of existing without religious affiliations, allowing for ethical exploration without religious doctrine.

Interdependence of Religion and Morality

The relationship between religion and morality is interdependent, with religion helping shape moral values, and morality refining religious mandates. Morality is cultivated through religious guidance, which encourages adherents to give up cruel and aggressive impulses, promoting justice, mercy, and contrition.

• Even when morality is considered autonomous, religion plays a supportive role. Immanuel Kant and R.B. Braithwaite suggest that God serves as a psychological motivator for moral duties. Kant recommends treating duties as "divine commands" to strengthen one's commitment to ethical conduct.
• Religious development often hinges on deepening moral insight. For instance, Judaism evolved to emphasize practices of justice, mercy, and contrition over cruel animal sacrifices. Similarly, the Rigvedic Aryans transitioned from animal sacrifice to the doctrine of Brahman, which focuses on conquering personal desires.
• Religion's essence, derived from "religare," binds adherents together and unifies the internal struggle against lower impulses. Thus, morality encompasses both external and internal codes of conduct, with the internalization of moral principles leading to greater purity. In Christianity and Hinduism, there's an emphasis on internalizing morality by mastering the self and nurturing the soul.

The Perfection of Morality through Religion

The higher the religion, the more stringent its demands for morality. Morality refines religion, making it purer. In both Christianity and Hinduism, the focus is on internalized morality, self-conquest, and self-cultivation. For example, Christianity goes beyond merely abstaining from adultery, emphasizing the need to avoid lustful thoughts.

Religion is often considered the guardian and embodiment of morality, and God is seen as its chief protector. In this view, religion becomes the perfection of morality, and God serves as the conservator of all values, especially morality. Although religion is often perceived as intertwined with morality, at times, it is argued to be independent of moral considerations.

Religion's Independence from Morality

In primitive religious practices, magic often takes precedence over morality. Early forms of religion are characterized more by taboos than moral codes. In totemic cults, for instance, cannibalism was practiced without moral considerations, even extending to the sacrifice of children. This is evident in the biblical story of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac to please Yahwe.

• Certain heretical sects, such as Ajivikism, practiced antinomianism, which opposes the obligation of observing moral principles. For example, Purana Kassapa, an akriyavadi (inactionist), believed that actions have no effect on the soul.
• In later religious developments, such as in Christianity and Indian thought, the concept of salvation by the Grace of God alone emerges. The belief is that the soul (Atman) cannot be attained through instruction, intellect, or learning but only by the Atman's own choice. Similarly, figures like John Calvin emphasized salvation by the grace of God. This perspective can be traced back to Pauline teachings and has been echoed by theologians like Karl Barth. In these teachings, moral excellence becomes irrelevant, as no one can be considered righteous before God.

Within the framework of advaitism and the Bhakti cult of the Alvars, it is taught that, after reaching the final stage of spiritual ascent, the seeker transcends the notions of 'good and evil.' This carries several nuances:

1. The realization that actions, whether good or evil, belong to Prakrti (nature). This knowledge liberates individuals from all actions, good or bad, as they understand that Prakrti alone is the doer.
2. The understanding that, in the state of prapatti (surrender to God), it is God who acts, not the individual. The prapanna (one who has surrendered) is not the doer of any work, be it good or bad.
3. The devotee becomes so holy that they are incapable of committing sin; only virtuous deeds flow from them.
4. When one becomes one with Brahman, action ceases, as there is no one to whom they can do either good or bad.

In these various religious perspectives, morality may either not be invoked, as in certain primitive forms of religion, or it is transcended as individuals progress spiritually.

The Autonomy of Morality

Immanuel Kant has championed the concept of the autonomy of morality. According to this perspective, morality is good not because God wills it; rather, God wills it because it is inherently good. Kant's memorable words emphasize that a "Good Will" is intrinsically good, not due to its consequences, which can be thwarted by the limited provisions of nature, but because it is inherently and categorically good. Unlike health, wealth, honor, learning, and other worldly attributes that can be misused, a good will shines by its own light and is beyond compromise.

• Since Kant's time, the autonomy of morals has gained acceptance among philosophers. Religion is seen as a collection of moral principles often accompanied by emotional or story-based backing, as seen in the works of Matthew Arnold and R.B. Braithwaite. For Braithwaite, a religious assertion comprises a statement of intention to carry out a specific behavior policy, aligning with a moral one that is general enough to be considered moral. Analytic philosophers today often study morality with little or no reference to religion. Ideologies like communism and democracy tend to denounce religion, as exemplified by communism's historical criticism and philosophers like John Dewey, who emphasizes the self-sufficiency of democracy.
• In the words of John Dewey, "The ideal ends to which we attach our faith are not shadowy and wavering." He calls for the conservation, transmission, rectification, and expansion of human values across generations, emphasizing humanity's collective responsibility rather than dividing it by sect, class, or race.
• Freud, however, suggests that morality needs to be detached from religion, primarily due to religion's mythological nature, which is expected to fade as scientific knowledge expands. This separation is deemed necessary to ensure the persistence of morality, even in a world without religious myths. The question arises: Can humanity exist without religion?
• The argument posits the a priori nature of religion's doctrine. While much of the mythological aspects in religion may diminish, a purified and refined form of religion, such as the path of Advaitism advocated by figures like Shankara, Kabir, Sri Ramakrishna, and Vivekananda, will continue to guide humanity toward higher goals. Even Kant, known as the father of the autonomy of morality, recommended the psychological booster of religious myth. He believed that duties should be performed as divine commands, recognizing that the performance of duties is often challenging for humans without such reinforcement. Therefore, religion and morality must continue to coexist and evolve through mutual refinement, criticism, and sublimation.

Religion and Morality: Exploring the Connection

The moral choices people make are deeply intertwined with their understanding of the world and humanity's place within it. Religions, too, grapple with these very concerns, each offering its unique perspective. Religions encompass three fundamental aspects:

1. Worldview: Every religion presents a distinctive view of the world, defining the nature of existence.
2. Values: Religions promote specific sets of values that guide their followers' behavior.
3. Guidance: Religions offer practical advice for leading a life, be it through rules to follow or attitudes to adopt.

Bases for Religious Rules and Values

Religious rules and values are derived from various sources:

• Religious Authority: Many rely on the authority of religious leaders or sacred texts for guidance.
• Cumulative Experience: Some rules and values are drawn from the collective experiences of religious communities.
• Rational Thought: Certain religious principles may be based on rational reasoning and what is perceived as "natural."

These religious values can have a broad societal impact, influencing not only adherents but also the larger community. For instance, many ethical arguments in Western culture have been shaped by Christian values, permeating the collective mindset. Similarly, individuals in predominantly Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, or Buddhist societies are likely to be influenced by the predominant religious beliefs or react against them deliberately.

Relationship Between Religion and Morality

The connection between religion and morality can be categorized into three possibilities:

1. Autonomy: Morality can be considered autonomous when it is grounded solely in reason, independent of religious ideas. Any overlap between moral values and a particular religion is seen as coincidental.
2. Heteronomy: Morality is heteronomous if it directly depends on religious beliefs or values prescribed by religion.
3. Theonomy: Morality is theonomous when both morality and religion are thought to emanate from a common source of inspiration, often referred to as 'God.'

Autonomy of Morality

• Responsible moral choices require freedom and rational decision-making, and some religious perspectives invoke rewards or punishments in the afterlife (e.g., heaven or hell) as motivation for moral behavior.
• Different religions or sects within a religion may present conflicting views on moral issues, necessitating individual reason as the ultimate arbiter, reflecting autonomy.
• Theistic religions that believe in an all-knowing God raise questions about moral responsibility if God can prevent wrongdoing and chooses not to.

Heteronomy of Morality

• Religious values and attitudes influence people, consciously or subconsciously. Acknowledging this influence is more practical than attempting to deny it.
• Defining moral terms invariably involves language shaped by predominant religions, such as natural law, which has been significantly influenced by religion.
• Religion provides the community, values, and moral courage to put moral principles into practice. It offers a realistic understanding of human nature and a foundation for moral decision-making, recognizing human selfishness and unreasonableness.

Theonomy of Morality

• Intuitionism suggests that there are things known but beyond description. Both religion and morality share an intuitive sense of 'good.'
• Religion and morality may have a common source in mystical experiences that yield intuitive awareness of life's meaning, purpose, and well-being.
• Metaphysics, the exploration of meaning and purpose in the world, serves as the foundation for morality, as evident in natural law traditions and contemporary philosophy.

The Euthyphro Dilemma

This dilemma, named after Plato's dialogue, encapsulates the essence of the relationship between autonomous morality and religion. It poses a fundamental question: Is something right because the gods command it, or do the gods command it because it is right? This dilemma forces individuals to grapple with the priority and autonomy of morality in relation to religious authority.

The Moral Basis in Different Religions

Each major religion has its moral foundation and source of authority:

1. Judaism: Rooted in the Torah, which contains rules for ethical and social matters. The Ten Commandments are among its most famous moral guidelines.
2. Christianity: Draws from the Torah and emphasizes Jesus' teachings. Christianity interprets and reinterprets moral rules, highlighting faith in God and Jesus as the basis of its way of life.
3. Islam: Based on the Quran and Hadith, Islam follows Shariah, a natural law governing various aspects of life. It emphasizes submission to God's will.
4. Hinduism: Comprises diverse traditions but is characterized by Nishkamakarma, promoting selfless, desireless action. Hindu moral philosophy recognizes the role of spirituality in ethical choices.

Summary and Expansion

Religion and morality share complex and multifaceted relationships, categorized as autonomy, heteronomy, and theonomy. These relationships are influenced by the source of moral values, which can range from religious authority to human reason and conscience. The connection between religion and morality differs across major religions, each having its unique moral basis. For example, Hinduism promotes selfless action, while Islam emphasizes submission to God's will through Shariah. Additionally, these moral foundations can evolve and adapt as cultures and societies change.

Dharma and Ashramas in Hinduism

Dharma: Dharma represents the concept of "right conduct" or "duty" in Hinduism, shaping what is considered morally right. The specific dharma of an individual depends on their identity and life stage.
Ashramas: Hindu life is divided into four stages, each with its own duties and moral choices:

1. Student: During this phase, one should work diligently, show respect to parents and teachers, and cultivate self-discipline. Abstaining from sex, alcohol, tobacco, and drugs is expected.
2. Householder: The middle years are devoted to marriage, family, and career. Social rules are more lenient during this period.
3. Retired: After the arrival of grandchildren, it's customary for individuals to step back from family and business matters. They can choose to pass control of family businesses to the next generation.
4. Ascetic: In their later years, some Hindus choose to renounce all possessions and dedicate themselves to religious practice. However, most remain in the retired stage and continue to live with their families. Hinduism recognizes varying abilities and responsibilities among people.

Buddhism: Morality and Skillful Means

1. Buddhism is unique among religions as it doesn't center on a belief in God. Instead, it offers practical guidelines for spiritual development. Buddhists aim to overcome suffering driven by greed, hatred, and illusions while striving for peace, joy, and insight.

2. They believe in the law of karma, asserting that all ethically significant actions have consequences. Buddhist moral guidelines are summarized in the Five Precepts:

   1. Not to destroy life: Avoid harming humans and animals, often leading to vegetarianism. It promotes an attitude of loving-kindness.
   2. Not to take what is not given: Encourages honesty and generosity.
   3. Not to indulge in harmful sexual activity: Promotes sexuality that doesn't harm others. Buddhism generally takes a liberal attitude toward sex.
   4. Not to speak falsely: Enforces truthfulness and discourages deception.
   5. Not to take things that cloud the mind: To increase awareness, Buddhists avoid substances like alcohol and drugs.

3. Buddhists are encouraged to cultivate the Brahma Viharas, including love, pity, joy, and serenity, in their mental states. Buddhism focuses on skilful actions, where the intention behind an action is paramount. An action is considered skilful if it arises from insight and loving kindness, whereas actions driven by ignorance, greed, or hatred are unskilful.

4. Buddhism has adapted to various cultures, offering general moral principles rather than narrow, rigid rules. Monastic discipline is a means to create an environment for Buddhist practice, not an end itself.

5. Upaya Kaushalya (Skillful Means): Skillful means or upaya is a central concept in Buddhism. It refers to using wisdom and compassion to take appropriate actions in different situations. It can help individuals progress spiritually by addressing their specific needs, and the same action may have different effects in various contexts. In Mahayana Buddhism, it emphasizes the Buddha's teachings as provisional, preparing followers for more advanced Mahayana teachings.

Sikhism: Emphasizing Equality and Devotion

• Sikhs believe that devotion to God is essential to avoid living in illusion, overcoming the five evil impulses: lust, anger, greed, attachment to worldly things, and pride. They aim to cultivate opposites: self-control, forgiveness, contentment, love for God, and humility.

• Sikh guidelines are outlined in the 'Rehat Maryada,' providing a summary of the Sikh way of life based on the teachings of the ten Gurus.

• Sikhs emphasize equality through communal kitchens in Gurdwaras, where worshippers can sit and eat together to demonstrate unity.

• Sikhs who commit themselves to the Sikh way of life are known as Khalsa and are required to carry a sword (kirpan) for self-defense. Its use is reserved for situations where peaceful resolution has failed, and it is used to re-establish justice, protect the Sikh community, or as a direct act of self-defense.

Religious Values and Society

The interaction between religious values and society is a complex and evolving process, often influenced by various factors:

• Religious and Ethnic Diversity: In today's world, many societies consist of diverse religious and ethnic groups, challenging the assumption that religious views are uniform within a particular religion, regardless of the society.
• Ethical Differences: Even within a single religion, members may have different ethical perspectives due to the lifestyle and societal expectations where they live.

Responses to Ethical Dilemmas in a Secular Society:

Individuals who belong to a religion but live in largely secular societies may respond in two distinct ways:

1. Maintaining Distinction: Some may emphasize the differences between their religious community's lifestyle and ethics and that of the broader secular society. This distinction may define their identity, often highlighting how their religion differs from the prevailing secular norm.
2. Compromise or Reinterpretation: Others might compromise or reinterpret religious rules to align them with the prevailing lifestyle. This adaptation can lead to disagreements within the same religion when its members live in different societies.

Balancing Secular and Religious Moral Arguments:

Balancing secular and religious moral arguments involves weighing factors that influence one's self-understanding and commitment. Individuals must consider whether they primarily identify as a religious person in a secular society, a secular person living in a religious society, or someone who finds the teachings of a particular religion helpful in their life. How these conflicts or potential conflicts are weighed determines how one balances secular and religious moral arguments.

Religious Influence on Secular Society:

• Religious principles may coincide with those of secular society, but the authority behind these principles and their justifications may differ. In some religions like Judaism, Islam, Sikhism, and Hinduism, the religion tends to promote its own culture and is less influenced by the secular or cultural context. Traditions and practices, such as Islamic Ramadan, remain consistent worldwide for Muslims.
• In contrast, Buddhists and Christians have often adapted their fundamental beliefs to align with societal attitudes and philosophies. Therefore, there is a greater variety of moral perspectives within these religions, influenced by the societies they engage with. In cultures where a specific religion is historically dominant, such as Christianity in Europe or Buddhism in Thailand, distinguishing between secular culture and religious influence can be challenging.

Is Intention Enough?:

Daniel Dennett, an American philosopher, raises a question about intention and action in secular morality. He argues that intentions are not enough; individuals, whether religious or secular, must actively strive to do what is right within human capabilities, especially in fields like medicine and science. Secular morality, like religious morality, places a strong emphasis on actively doing what is right, not merely intending to do so.

Should Religious Freedom Be Restricted?:

Religious beliefs sometimes lead to actions that conflict with societal norms. The ethical dilemma arises: Should religious freedom be restricted when it clashes with the majority's moral values? This presents several questions:

• Balancing Freedom and Harm: Society must consider whether the value of allowing individuals or groups to act based on their religious or moral views outweighs any potential harm perceived by the majority.
• Freedom vs. Enforced Moral Code: The dilemma lies between granting freedom, which may lead to actions perceived as morally wrong by the majority, and enforcing a moral code on all members of society.