Equality: Social and Political ideals | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Equality in Political Theory

• Similar to liberty, equality is a fundamental theme in normative political theory.
• It cannot be studied in isolation but is interconnected with other related theories.

The Multi-Dimensional Nature of Equality

• Equality is closely tied to rights, liberty, fraternity, property, and justice.
• It has evolved into a multi-dimensional concept.
• Defining equality is challenging, as it takes on various forms and meanings.

Diverse Meanings of Equality

• It means that conditions guaranteed as rights to one person must be guaranteed to all.
• Ensures equal treatment in terms of rights and entitlements.

2. Equality of Opportunity

• It goes beyond legal equality.
• It depends on the presence of abilities, not just the absence of disabilities.
• All individuals, regardless of birth, occupation, or social position, should have equal chances to maximize their natural endowments.

3. Equality Not Meaning Identical Treatment

• True equality doesn't require identical treatment, as people have different needs, capacities, and efforts.
• It doesn't imply an identical reward for efforts.
• It means that even if one's voice carries less weight, it should still be considered in decision-making.

Positive and Negative Aspects of Equality
Positive Notion of Equality

• In a positive sense, equality means providing adequate opportunities for all, considering their individual needs and capacities.
• Encourages a good life and personal fulfillment.

Negative Notion of Equality

• In a negative sense, equality means the absence of undue privileges.
• Discrimination based on religion, caste, color, wealth, sex, etc., should not hinder talent and opportunities.

Exceptions and Efficiency
Exceptions to Equality

• Some discrimination on material grounds can be justified, such as gender-based discrimination in recruitment to police and military posts.
• Equality should be balanced with efficiency and public benefit.

Equality of Opportunity

• Equal opportunities don't mean treating everyone exactly the same.
• It means providing suitable opportunities for all while ensuring extraneous factors like wealth, birth, or class do not limit one's potential.

Conclusion

• Equality is a complex concept with diverse meanings.
• It encompasses equal rights and opportunities while balancing with efficiency.
• True equality means fostering individual potential and not letting artificial factors hinder one's progress.

Egalitarianism: Promoting Equality within Inequality

• Egalitarianism advocates that equality does not equate to uniformity.
• It emphasizes that equality should be derived from the supreme value of developing individual personalities along their unique paths.

Prescriptive Nature of Equality

• The concept of equality is more prescriptive than descriptive.
• It does not imply that all individuals possess equal attributes or capacities.
• Rather, it suggests that people should be treated similarly regarding fundamental traits common to all, like their human dignity and worth.

Equality in Different Contexts

• Equality varies in different contexts; for example, medical treatment cannot be uniform, and crimes like theft and murder deserve distinct punishments.
• Treating all individuals equally in all respects is not desirable.

Principle of Equality

• The principle of equality does not dictate treating all human beings identically but presumes against treating them differently without valid reasons.

Specific Types of Equality

1. Formal Equality

• This concept implies treating individuals without discrimination based on social, economic status, religion, etc.
• It is based on the "first come, first served" rule, promoting fairness and non-discrimination.

2. Substantive Equality

• Substantive equality seeks to assist weaker and deprived sections to achieve equality with less effort or cost.
• It goes beyond formal equality and aims to address systemic disparities.

3. Types of Equality

• Natural or Moral Equality: The ideal that nature has made all humans equal.
• Social or Civil Equality: Equality in the social sphere, where rights should be equal for all, irrespective of caste, race, religion, or social background.
• Political Equality: Ensuring that all citizens have equal access to avenues of power.
• Economic Equality: Promoting equal economic power and wealth distribution.
• Legal Equality: Treating all people alike in the eyes of the law.
• International Equality: Extending the principle of equality to the international sphere, advocating for fair treatment of all nations.

Drawbacks of Formal Equality

• Formal equality may not consider overwhelming handicaps due to factors like caste or social background.
• It may not lead to human emancipation as it does not address class-based differences.
• Today, equality is viewed prescriptively rather than descriptively, emphasizing policies that promote the ideal of equality.

Substantive Equality

• Social and economic equality aim to meet the norms of substantive equality.
• It seeks to assist weaker and deprived sections to achieve equality with less effort or cost.

Conclusion

• Egalitarianism underscores the importance of equality within the context of individual development.
• Different forms of equality, such as formal and substantive, address various aspects of inequality and strive to promote a fair and just society.

Liberal View of Equality vs. Marxist Notion of Equality

1. Equal Treatment with Relevant Differences:

   • Liberals believe that equals should be treated equally, while unequals should be treated unequally based on relevant differences.

2. Equal Basic Liberties:

   • Each person should have an equal right to basic liberty, compatible with similar liberty for others.

3. Social and Economic Inequalities:

   • Social and economic inequalities should be arranged to benefit everyone, attached to positions open to all.

4. Equality of Opportunity:

   • Equality of opportunity is crucial in a competitive, individualistic society.

5. Inequality with Equal Opportunities:

   • Inequality within equal opportunities is acceptable, as it rewards those who make the best use of their chances.

Marxist Notion of Equality:

1. Two Aspects of Equality:

   • Marxist equality has economic aspects in a class-based society and becomes humanistic in the communist phase.

2. Economic Equality:

   • Economic equality is the core in a class-based society, closely tied to the principle, "He who shall work, shall eat."

3. Class Struggles and Exploitation:

   • Economic injustice and exploitation have dominated human history due to class struggles.

4. Equality in Classless Society:

   • True equality emerges in a classless society, with the dissolution of class antagonisms.

5. Humanistic Equality in Communism:

   • In the final stage of communism, equality takes on a humanistic form, emphasizing cooperation and moral equality.

Evolution of Equality Definitions:

1. Changing Meanings of Equality:

   • Equality's meaning evolves across different historical epochs and social structures.

2. Legal Equality in Transition:

   • During the transition from feudalism to capitalism, legal equality meant abolishing noble privileges but concealed growing economic inequality.

3. Equality Must Extend Beyond Law:

   • Legal equality is insufficient if it doesn't address social, political, racial, and economic inequalities.

4. Communist Vision of Equality:

   • Communism aims to eliminate all social and class distinctions, creating a classless, socially homogeneous, and truly equal society.

Views of Modern Liberals: A Shift in Approach

1. Changing Liberal Philosophy:

   • Modern liberals like Hobhouse, Tawney, and Pollard argue that equality is essential to liberty, and the two principles must be reconciled.

2. Economic Equality and Democracy:

   • Reconciling liberty and equality necessitates economic equality, which involves state intervention and democratic control over economic power.

3. The Challenge of Reconciliation:

   • The main challenge lies in making the reconciliation of liberty and economic equality acceptable to the privileged class.

4. Boons of Liberty and Equality:

   • Both liberty and equality are integral to human development, with the modern age emphasizing the liberation of human capacity as the ultimate aim.

5. Equality and Liberty's Complementarity:

   • Equality and liberty are not conflicting but complementary ideals, with economic equality being a prerequisite for true liberty.

Difference Between Liberal and Marxist Equality: 

In Sum: Both liberal and Marxist views on equality have their unique perspectives and implications for society, with modern liberals advocating a shift toward greater economic equality to complement individual liberties.

Basic Principles of Equality

1. Satisfaction of Basic Needs:

   • Egalitarians support the idea that every individual has a right to the fulfillment of their basic needs. They oppose a society with significant disparities in living standards and advocate for conditions that not only meet the bare minimum but provide a satisfying and fulfilling life for all.

2. Equal Respect:

   • Equality is also about equal respect, which entails opposition to any form of degrading treatment or circumstances. Egalitarians strive for a society based on fellow feeling and mutual respect.

3. Economic Equality:

   • Egalitarians are against substantial differences in income and wealth, both at the individual and national levels. They promote democratic control of the economy and workplaces, as well as the availability of dignified, interesting, and safe work opportunities for everyone.

4. Political Equality:

   • Beyond the right to vote or run for public office, political equality encompasses a wide range of civil rights and active democratic participation in various aspects of life. This allows individuals to have more control and influence over their lives.

Additional Components of Equality: Egalitarians also emphasize other dimensions of equality, including sexual, racial, ethnic, and religious equality. The concept of equality remains open to further expansion, making it a flexible and evolving idea.

Equality of Outcomes:

Another aspect of equality is the equality of outcomes, which shifts the focus from the starting point in life to the final results. Marx, for example, argued for absolute social equality achievable only by abolishing private property.

Defenders of equality of outcome argue that guaranteeing all other forms of equality is insufficient if the final outcomes do not reflect this equality.

Criticism of Equality of Outcome:

1. Stagnation and Tyranny:

   • Critics argue that pursuing equality of outcome can lead to stagnation, injustice, and potentially tyranny. A forced equalization of outcomes may hinder individual progress and motivation.

2. Diverse Aspirations:

   • Hayek and others contend that people have diverse aspirations and goals, and treating them equally may result in inequality. The drive for strict equality, they argue, can come at the expense of individual liberty.

3. Undermining Individual Dignity:

   • The imposition of socialist egalitarian measures can undermine individual dignity and self-respect. Critics believe that such measures, with an inherent paternalistic approach, deny individuals their ability to make rational choices.

Arguments Against Equality

• Some argue that equality is unattainable in reality because society is often viewed as a competition where not everyone can be a winner.
• This objection stems from a specific perspective on the nature of society and the individual.

Criticism from Libertarian Thinkers

• Notable figures like Hayek, Friedman, and Nozick have criticized egalitarianism as a threat to freedom.
• Nozick, in particular, criticizes liberals like John Rawls and Dworkin for their support of welfare provisions to enhance equality of opportunity.
• According to libertarians, egalitarianism undermines self-respect rather than promoting it.

Distinctiveness and Self-Esteem

• Nozick argues that egalitarian societies fail to acknowledge the distinctiveness of individuals and the differences between them.
• In an egalitarian society devoid of power, rank, income, or social status differences, there would be no basis for self-esteem, which is rooted in criteria that differentiate people.

Strengthening the State and Reducing Freedom

• Some believe that attempts to establish equality lead to a stronger state, which, in turn, diminishes individual freedom.
• The argument is that efforts to enforce equality result in greater state intervention and control.

Wider Understanding of Equality

• Justice principles, such as those proposed by John Rawls, emphasize a broader understanding of equality that includes the greatest benefit for the least advantaged.
• These principles are not based on traditional liberal rights but involve more extensive considerations of equality.

Incentives and Redistribution

• Unequal rewards are justified as incentives to benefit the least advantaged members of society.
• Some thinkers, like Dworkin, argue for the need for redistribution and welfare policies.

Critique of Rawlsian Equality

• Macpherson criticizes Rawlsian equality for assuming the inevitability of institutionalized inequalities between classes.
• He argues that class-based inequalities create unequal power dynamics among individuals, affecting other aspects of equality.

Relationship Between Liberty and Equality

1. Complementary Principles:

   • Thinkers like R.M. Tawney, Harold J. Laski, and C.B. Macpherson, as well as philosophers like Hume, Rousseau, and Barker, view liberty and equality as complementary principles.

2. Equal Liberty:

   • Liberty is often seen as requiring "equal" freedom for everyone. If one person's freedom impinges on another's, it goes against the very spirit of freedom. Thus, both liberty and equality are interdependent.

3. Promoting Individual Personality:

   • Both liberty and equality share the common purpose of promoting individual personality and creating a better social order.

4. Interdependence:

   • Egalitarians argue that individuals do not achieve true freedom by being left alone. Power, wealth, and education are fundamental sources of liberty, and a society that cannot ensure equality in these aspects cannot truly be a free society. Hence, liberty and equality are not only compatible but also dependent on each other.

5. Democratic Promotion:

   • Political arrangements in democracies, such as the "one person, one vote" principle, promote equality while safeguarding and promoting liberty. Therefore, democracy is considered the best system for balancing the two ideals.

Liberty and Equality are Incompatible:

1. De Tocqueville, Friedman, Nozick, and Hayek:

   • Thinkers like De Tocqueville, Friedman, Nozick, and Hayek believe that equality poses a potential threat to liberty.

2. Tyranny of the Majority:

   • De Tocqueville introduces the concept of the "Tyranny of the Majority," where the voice of the minority is stifled to satisfy the majority. This can undermine individual liberty.

3. Equality Implies Coercion:

   • Critics argue that equality immediately implies coercion and loss of liberty. They contend that since individuals have different skills and abilities, natural differences in their lives are bound to exist, and attempts to enforce equality may require authoritarian measures, leading to a loss of liberty.

4. Acceptance of Inequality:

   • Some proponents of this view accept inequality as a natural outcome. They believe that efforts to correct these natural inequalities would involve authoritarian suppression and harm individual liberty.

5. Capitalism and Liberty:

   • Critics argue that capitalism and liberty are naturally compatible, as capitalism limits state authority. They subscribe to the "negative conception" of liberty, which sees liberty as the absence of deliberate interference in an individual's life. They view liberty as the availability and ability to make meaningful and effective choices.

6. Incompatibility with Equality:

   • Liberty is seen as needing the sustenance of capitalism, while capitalism and equality are seen as incompatible with each other.

In Sum: The relationship between liberty and equality is a matter of ongoing debate. While some argue that they are compatible and even interdependent, others contend that they are fundamentally incompatible, with attempts to enforce equality potentially leading to a loss of individual liberty.

Equality and Feminism

1. Inequality Through Social Practices:

   • Feminists argue that current legislation on equal opportunities and redistributive justice, even when extended to various areas, cannot create true equality. They contend that these rules and principles operate in an environment already tainted by gender inequality, brought about by societal practices.

2. Indirect Discrimination:

   • Many practices are not directly discriminatory towards women, but their cumulative impact reinforces gender inequality and lends it a veneer of legitimacy. Women may not face formal legal differentiation, but they are often segregated into specific occupations. Married women with careers are especially disadvantaged in a gender-biased society.

3. Socially Constructed Roles:

   • Feminists emphasize that the substantive inequality experienced by women, including their limited voice in family decisions, child-rearing responsibilities, and withdrawal from the labor market, is a result of socially constructed roles, not natural choices.

4. Complex Remedial Measures:

   • While feminists highlight the presence of gender inequality within social practices, they also recognize the challenge of addressing it, especially when it comes to family life. Remedial measures can be difficult to implement without undermining personal freedoms. Therefore, it is crucial for women to be aware of their inequality, their subordinate role in the family, and actively participate in reorienting societal constructs to achieve gender equality.

Equality and Justice from Libertarian and Egalitarian Perspectives

Libertarians on Equality and Justice:

1. Hayek's View:

   • Libertarians like Hayek believe that justice, when used to promote equality, contradicts the principle of liberty. This creates tension and disputes regarding the perceived unjust distribution of life's goods.

2. Procedure and Freedom:

   • Libertarians view justice as a matter of procedure, with the goal of promoting freedom and offering maximum opportunities for individuals to serve their self-interest. They argue against taxing the rich to provide welfare for the poor and interpret equality as equal subjugation to common rules and regulations. Their vision of the state is minimal.

Egalitarians on Equality and Justice:

1. Rawls' Perspective:

   • Egalitarians, exemplified by Rawls, consider liberty and equality as fundamental principles of justice. They seek to identify conditions under which inequalities can be deemed just. Egalitarianism aims to provide opportunities for both the poor and the wealthy to advance, emphasizing substantive justice.

2. Substantive Justice:

   • Substantive justice demands the removal of unreasonable inequalities in socioeconomic, legal, and political realms to positively impact the conditions of the poor and the weaker members of society.

3. Conflict and Change:

   • Egalitarians advocate for radical changes in the current distribution of benefits and burdens to alleviate the plight of the oppressed. This can lead to conflicts and render existing legal and political inequalities ineffective.

Conclusion:

1. Conflict and Interpretation:

   • The foundation of a just social order rests on both liberty and equality. Conflicts arise from the biased interpretations of these principles.

2. Economic Sphere:

   • In the economic sphere, a rigid interpretation of equality as equal shares regardless of merit or need can destroy liberty and undermine the concept of equality.

3. Legal-Political Sphere:

   • Reconciling liberty and equality is less contentious in the legal and political sphere, where both principles can coexist.

4. Socio-Economic Sphere:

   • In the socio-economic sphere, some champions of liberty contest the idea of equality, arguing that it curtails opportunities for individual advancement. However, extreme interpretations that absolve the state from addressing socio-economic inequalities can lead to drastic and negative consequences.

5. Ever-Evolving Search:

   • The search for a universally acceptable version of equality and its reconciliation with liberty continues. Differences in social, political, and economic philosophies persist as long as there is freedom of thought and expression, making it challenging to arrive at a definitive and universally applicable definition of equality.