History, Art & Culture: November 2023 Current Affairs | Current Affairs & General Knowledge - CLAT PDF Download

Parthenon Sculptures

Context

Tensions flared between Greece and the UK when British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak called off a scheduled meeting with his Greek counterpart Kyriakos Mitsotakis, citing disagreements over the status of the Parthenon Sculptures exhibited at the British Museum.

• The Parthenon Sculptures, also known as the Elgin Marbles, are a collection of ancient marble sculptures and architectural elements that were originally part of the Parthenon temple on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.

Historical Context

• Parthenon Construction: The Parthenon, a magnificent temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, was built in the 5th century BC during Athens' Golden Age under the direction of the sculptor Phidias.
• Sculptural Decoration: The Parthenon was adorned with exquisite sculptural friezes, metopes, and pedimental sculptures depicting mythological narratives, religious ceremonies, and heroic figures.

Acquisition and Controversy

• Lord Elgin's Role: In the early 19th century, Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin and then-British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, acquired the sculptures from the Parthenon, allegedly with permission from the Ottoman authorities who controlled Athens at that time.
• Removal and Transport: Lord Elgin's team removed a significant portion of the sculptures, including metopes, friezes, and statues, and transported them to Britain.

Display and Ownership

• British Museum Acquisition: The Parthenon Sculptures were acquired by the British government in 1816 and subsequently housed in the British Museum in London, where they remain on display to this day.
• Ownership Dispute: Greece has persistently demanded the return of the sculptures since gaining independence in the 19th century. Athens considers the removal of the marbles as an act of cultural theft.

Significance and Cultural Impact

• Artistic and Historical Importance: The Parthenon Sculptures are renowned for their exceptional artistic quality, depicting ancient Greek mythology and history. They are considered a symbol of classical art and civilization.
• Global Debate: The ownership dispute between Greece and the UK over the sculptures has sparked worldwide debate regarding the repatriation of cultural artifacts and the ethical considerations of retaining heritage objects in foreign museums.

Legal and Ethical Perspectives

• Ownership Claims: Greece argues that the sculptures were removed without proper authorization and under conditions of occupation, thus advocating for their return to their place of origin.
• British Museum's Position: The British Museum maintains that Lord Elgin legally acquired the sculptures and that their display in London contributes to global cultural heritage and allows wider access to the artworks.
• Diplomatic Negotiations: Over the years, discussions and negotiations between Greece and the UK have continued, with Greece persistently seeking the permanent return of the Parthenon Sculptures to Athens.
• Cultural Restitution Movements: The debate surrounding the Parthenon Sculptures has fueled broader conversations about the repatriation of cultural artifacts to their countries of origin, influencing international laws and museum ethics.

Conclusion

The Parthenon Sculptures represent a cultural legacy that embodies both artistic excellence and a contentious history of removal and ownership. The ongoing debate raises questions about cultural heritage preservation, legal ownership, and the ethical responsibility of museums to protect and restore cultural artifacts to their places of origin.

Motorable Road to Amarnath Cave Shrine

Context

The completion of a motorable road linking the Amarnath cave shrine in Kashmir's Lidder Valley to the Baltal base camp by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has enhanced accessibility and comfort for pilgrims. 

• This achievement is attributed to the effective enhancement of the Baltal road, a success realized through the ongoing endeavors of Project Beacon.

What are the Key Facts Regarding Amarnath Cave Shrine?

• The Amarnath mountain features a cave on its south famously known as the Amarnath Cave. This cave is the location of the Amarnath Temple, a significant Hindu shrine situated in the Pahalgam tehsil of the Anantnag district in Jammu and Kashmir, India.
  • The shrine is perched at an altitude of 3,800 metres, contributing to the challenging nature of the pilgrimage.
• Amarnath Peak, a part of the Himalayas is a mountain with a peak elevation of 5,186 meters, in the Ganderbal district of Jammu and Kashmir, in the vicinity of Sonamarg.
• Amarnath yatra is an annual pilgrimage to the Amarnath cave, where devotees pay homage to an ice stalagmite believed to be the lingam of Lord Shiva.
  • The ice stalagmite forms every year during the summer months and reaches its maximum size in July and August, when thousands of Hindu devotees make an annual pilgrimage to the cave.
• Traditional Access Routes:
  • Pilgrims historically approached the shrine via two routes Pahalgam and Sonamarg both located in the Lidder Valley, each presenting its own set of challenges through demanding terrains.
  • Pilgrims also had the option to use chopper services from Baltal to Panchtarni, located 6 km away from the shrine. However, ecological concerns led to the discontinuation of services directly to the shrine.

Kozhikode and Gwalior in UNESCO Creative Cities Network

• Kozhikode has been designated in the literature category, while Gwalior has been included in the music category within the Creative Cities Network.
• The Creative Cities Network now comprises 350 cities worldwide, with the recent addition of 55 cities from various countries.

Kozhikode's Literary and Cultural Significance

• Kozhikode is renowned for its rich literary heritage, being the birthplace of Appu Nedungadi, the author of the first Malayalam novel, "Kundalatha," in 1887.
• The city boasts prominent Malayalam writers, including S K Pottekkatt, Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Uroob, Thikkodiyan, NN Kakkad, P Valsala, Akbar Kakkattil, Punathil Kunjabdulla, and MT Vasudevan Nair.
• Kozhikode is a hub for media houses, numerous publishing banners, and several libraries, contributing significantly to its literary tradition.
• The city has also produced numerous film and theatre professionals, further enhancing its cultural and literary prominence.

Gwalior's Musical Legacy: From Tansen to the Scindia Gharana

• Gwalior is celebrated as the birthplace of the legendary musician Tansen and is home to the centuries-old Scindia Gharana, dedicated to preserving and promoting music.
• The city boasts a diverse musical heritage, encompassing classical Hindustani music, folk music, and devotional music.
• Gwalior hosts prestigious music institutes and festivals, further solidifying its position as a center for musical excellence.

UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network (UCCN): Fostering Urban Creativity for Sustainable Development

• Network Establishment: The Cultivating Creative Cities Network (UCCN) was established in 2004 to foster collaboration among cities recognizing creativity as vital for sustainable urban development.
• Global Reach: The UCCN comprises 350 cities across more than a hundred countries, aiming to instill a culture of creativity in urban planning and address urban challenges.
• Diversity and Resilience Objective: The network focuses on leveraging the creative, social, and economic potential of cultural industries to advance UNESCO's goals of cultural diversity and enhance resilience against challenges like climate change, inequality, and rapid urbanization.
• Creative Fields Categories: Cities in the network must represent one of seven creative fields: crafts and folk arts, design, film, gastronomy, literature, media arts, and music.
• Collaborative Activities: UCCN operates at both city and international levels, promoting the exchange of experiences, knowledge, and best practices. It facilitates professional and artistic exchange programs, research, and evaluations on creative city experiences.
• Annual Conference: An annual conference convenes mayors and stakeholders from network cities to strengthen global ties. The event serves as a platform for sharing practical information on policies, activities, and fostering collaborations between creative cities.
• Member Functions: Member cities are required to submit a Membership Monitoring Report every four years, demonstrating their commitment to the UCCN Mission Statement. The report includes an action plan for the next four years, detailing achievements, lessons learned, and the impact of the designation.

India’s Creative Cities Network: Celebrating Diverse Artistic Traditions Across the Nation

• Mumbai: Mumbai has been added to the UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network in the field of Film-making. It is the location for India’s largest film industry.
• Chennai: Chennai city has been added to the UCCN in the field of Music. The city is known for its 6,000 years old musical tradition.
• Hyderabad: The city of Hyderabad has been added to the network under the gastronomy field. The Hyderabadi cuisine is known for its combination of local flavors and international recipes.
• Varanasi: The city of Varanasi finds a place in the UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network in the field of Music, especially Hindustani.
• Jaipur: Jaipur has been designated as a creative city under UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network in the field of Crafts and Folk Arts.
• Srinagar: Srinagar has been given the status of the creative city in the field of Crafts and Folk Arts.

UNESCO: Fostering Global Cooperation for Education, Arts, Science, and Culture

• UNESCO's Mandate:
  • UNESCO, a specialized agency of the United Nations, aims to promote global peace and security through international collaboration in education, arts, sciences, and culture.
• Historical Roots:
  • UNESCO traces its origins to the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations.
• Promotion of Dialogue and Shared Values:
  • The organization seeks to facilitate dialogue among civilizations, cultures, and peoples, emphasizing respect for commonly shared values.
• Membership and Partnerships:
  • UNESCO comprises 193 member states, 12 associate members, and engages with partners in non-governmental, intergovernmental, and private sectors.
• Core Objectives:
  • UNESCO's primary objectives include promoting education, science, cultural diversity, and peace.
• Education Focus:
  • A key goal is to achieve quality education for all and encourage lifelong learning.
• Science for Sustainable Development:
  • UNESCO mobilizes scientific knowledge and policies to contribute to sustainable development globally.
• Addressing Social and Ethical Challenges:
  • The organization actively addresses emerging social and ethical challenges on a global scale.
• Cultural Diversity and Peace:
  • UNESCO fosters cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue, and a culture of peace.
• Inclusive Knowledge Societies:
  • Efforts are directed towards building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication.
• Global Priority Areas:
  • UNESCO focuses on global priority areas, including initiatives related to "Africa" and "Gender Equality."
• Working Areas:
  • UNESCO operates under five major program areas: education, social/human sciences, natural sciences, culture, and communication/information.
• Major Initiatives:
  • UNESCO is involved in significant initiatives such as the Man and Biosphere Programme, International Geoscience and Global Geoparks Programme, Creative Cities Network, World Heritage Site, Memory of the World Programme, Intangible Cultural Heritage, and World Water Assessment Programme.
• Major Reports:
  • UNESCO publishes influential reports like the UNESCO Science Report, Global Education Monitoring Report, World Heritage Glaciers, etc.

Portuguese Coin

Recently, a farmer in North Goa’s Nanoda Bamber village found 832 copper coins in a pot buried in the soil which were believed to be minted in Goa around the 16th or 17th Century when it was under Portuguese rule.

About 

• Variety of Portuguese Coins in Goa: Portuguese people in Goa issued gold, copper, and silver coins, including 'Cruzado' or 'Manoel' gold coins, similar in size and value to 'Pagodas' or 'Hons.'
• Gold and Silver Coin Types: Additional gold coins like 'Meio-manoel' and silver coins named 'Meia-espera' and 'Espera' were also issued.
• Design Features of Gold and Silver Coins: Gold 'Manoel' and silver 'Espera' coins featured the Cross of the Order of Christ on the obverse and the armillary sphere, King D. Manoel's device, on the reverse.
• Half-Piece Design: Half pieces of these coins bore the word 'MEA' with a crown on one side and the armillary sphere on the other.
• Governor's Suspension in 1519: The issuance of these coins was suspended by the Governor of Goa in 1519.
• Reintroduction of Coins in 1549: In 1549, gold and silver coins were reintroduced, featuring the effigy of St. Thomas, the patron saint for India.
• St. Thome Coins: Gold and silver coins had a seated or standing figure of St. Thomas with the letters S and T on one side and the crowned arm of Portugal with the monarch's initials on the other.
• Inscriptions and Details: Some coins included small inscriptions, adding details to their design.
• Denominations of Gold Coins: Gold coins were valued at 20, 10, 5, and 2 'Xerafirms.'
• Opening of Mints in 1611: Two mints were established at Bassein and Daman in 1611 for issuing copper 'Buzaruccos.'
• Tutenag Coins: Subsequently, 'tutenag' coins were issued from these mints.
• Design of Copper 'Buzaruccos': Copper 'Buzaruccos' featured the coat-of-arms on one side and a sheaf of arrows on the flip side.
• Historical Context: The adoption of St. Thomas as the patron saint reflected the Portuguese connection with India, and the coins played a role in showcasing this historical and religious association.