UPSC Mains Previous Year Questions 2019: GS2 Indian Polity | Indian Polity for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Q1: Do you think that Constitution of India does not accept principle of strict separation of powers rather it is based on the principle of 'checks and balance'? Explain.
Ans: The Indian constitution meticulously defines the powers and functions of the state's organs: legislature, executive, and judiciary. Unlike the US constitution, India adheres to the principle of 'checks and balances,' evident in constitutional provisions governing the three branches.
The President exercises the state's executive power, acting on advice from the council of ministers led by the Prime Minister. Article 75 specifies that the council, responsible for policy formulation and implementation, comprises members of Parliament and is accountable to the Lok Sabha. Parliament, consisting of the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the President, is unique as the legislative body with the head of the executive as an integral part. Various motions such as censure and no-confidence motions allow Parliament to scrutinize and hold the council accountable. Additionally, Article 61 empowers Parliament to impeach the President for constitutional violations.
India's judiciary, with the Supreme Court at its apex, is independent. Article 32 and 226 grant the Supreme Court and High Courts authority for judicial review, checking the constitutional validity of executive and legislative actions. Judicial independence is maintained in the constitution, but the judiciary's ties to the executive and legislative branches are evident in the appointment, transfer, and removal of judges.
The doctrine of separation of powers aims to create distinct power centers, avoiding concentration in a single institution. While strict separation is challenging, the doctrine emphasizes checks and balances to prevent power abuse and uphold the rule of law. The three pillars - legislature, executive, and judiciary - in India mutually reinforce each other, ensuring effective checks and the smooth functioning of the system.

Q2: The central administrative tribunal which was established for redressal of grievances and complaints by or against central government employees nowadays is exercising its power as an independent judicial authority. Explain. (Governance)
Ans: A new Part XIV-A was added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act of 1976. This part is titled as ‘Tribunals’ and consists of Article 323A which empowers the Parliament to provide for the establishment of administrative tribunals for the adjudication of disputes relating to recruitment and conditions of service of public servants.
Consequently, the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was established by an Act of 1985. The Principal seat of CAT is at New Delhi with additional benches in different states. The CAT has been given original jurisdiction in relation to recruitment and all service matters of public servants covered by it.
The Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) acts as an independent judicial authority, performing its duties free of influence or control by other actors.
Article 323A enables the Parliament to take out the adjudication of disputes relating to service matters from the civil courts and the high courts and place it before the administrative tribunals.
CAT is of statutory origin, unlike the Supreme Court and high courts which have direct origin from the Constitution. Nevertheless, the 1985 Act, by establishing CAT, has opened a new chapter in the sphere of providing speedy and inexpensive justice to aggrieved public servants.
The members of CAT are drawn both from judicial and administrative streams to give the Tribunal the benefit of expertise in both legal and administrative spheres. CAT is free from technical rules of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 and procedural shackles of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but it has been vested with the powers of a Civil Court in respect of some matters, including the review of its own decisions, and is bound by the principles of natural justice.
Recently, the Delhi High Court has held that the CAT can exercise the same jurisdiction and powers as a High Court in respect of its contempt proceedings, giving it more power to act as an independent judicial authority.
In another case, the CAT has taken a swipe at the Delhi High Court because during June vacations, the High Court briefly heard a case that was originally pending before the tribunal.
However, the Central Administrative Tribunal still cannot be called a truly independent judicial body because

• The Tribunal members do not enjoy powers like other judges who hold constitutional posts, and
• It is dependent on the executive for appointing members of the tribunal and their funding.

Thus, it can be fairly argued that the tribunal, formed for grievance and complaints redressal, has evolved into a judicial body but cannot be called entirely independent.

Q3: What are the methods used by the farmers’ organisation to influence the policy-makers in India and how effective are these methods? (Governance)
Ans: Farmers’ organizations serve as a valuable mechanism for organizing collective self-help actions among farmers, aiming to enhance their economic and social well-being as well as that of their communities. These organizations are seen as capable of mobilizing resources, garnering support, and exerting pressure through their members, operating at various levels from local to national.

Methods used by organizations:

• Awareness generation: Organizations seek public support for their goals through information campaigns, meetings, petitions, etc. Many groups aim to influence the media to bring attention to their issues.
• Lobbying: Influential farmers' groups, such as sugarcane farmers in Maharashtra and UP, attempt to shape favorable policies, like securing a beneficial Minimum Support Price (MSP) and payment of arrears.
• Protest: Organizations often engage in protest activities, such as strikes or disrupting general administration. Recent examples include farmers' marches to Delhi, focusing on issues like loan waivers, higher MSP, and free electricity.
• Activism: This involves publicizing important issues, petitioning courts, drafting legislation, and gaining public attention on matters related to farmers, such as those concerning GM crops.
• Recent trends: Farmers' organizations have adopted innovative methods like spilling milk and vegetables on highways or symbolic acts like appearing to consume unusual substances at public places like Delhi’s Jantar Mantar.

Challenges and outcomes:

• In times of impending unrest, the government often resorts to populist measures rather than implementing long-term solutions beneficial for the nation and farmers.
• Short-term measures, such as farm loan waivers, higher MSP, and cash transfers, are commonly employed by the government, but their effective implementation may be lacking.
• Even if populist measures are taken, their impact can be limited if there is a lack of infrastructure or public awareness about the schemes, rendering them ineffective.
• Several policy recommendations, like those from the Swaminathan Committee, remain unimplemented, indicating a misalignment between suggested measures and government actions.

Conclusion: While organizing protests and garnering support helps draw attention from the public and government, the tangible impact on the ground appears limited.

Q4: From the resolution of contentious issues regarding distribution of legislative powers by the courts, 'Principle of Federal Supremacy' and 'Harmonious Construction' have emerged. Explain. 
Ans: Division of power is a fundamental aspect of federalism, outlined in the Constitution through a three-fold distribution of legislative subjects among the Union list, State list, and Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule. However, disputes arise in categorizing legislation into these lists, leading to the evolution of various principles by the courts for resolution.
Principle of Harmonious Construction: In cases of conflict between statutes in the Union and State lists, the rule of harmonious construction is applied. This rule suggests interpreting the statute as a whole, considering its purpose and intent. The broadest interpretation of provisions should be allowed, and the courts should strive to remove inconsistencies in the statute's language. For example, in the case of Shri Krishna Rangnath Mudholkar vs Gujarat University, 1963, regarding the validity of the Gujarat University Act, the court applied this principle to allow the State government to legislate on excluded items, reserved for the center, as an extension of its power in education, as long as it doesn't contradict union law.
Principle of Federal Supremacy: When a statute's provisions fall within both State and Union lists, the center holds dominant legislative power. The State and Concurrent lists are subordinate to the Union list. The Supreme Court can invoke this principle as a last resort if attempts to find a solution under the Principle of Federal Supremacy fail.
In the era of cooperative and competitive federalism, efforts should be made to minimize conflicts. States should undertake reforms in vital areas like Police and Agriculture marketing, collaborating with other states and the center for a uniform legislative framework in key areas. Initiatives like 'One Nation, One Ration Card' indicate the need for increased federal cooperation.

Q5: What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism. 
Ans: European countries, including France, grapple with striking a balance between secularism and state religion to harmonize national and religious identity, allowing coexistence of ethnic and religious minority groups within state institutions. Examples include the bans on Islamic clothing, kosher or halal meals, and burqas in France.
India's experiences may shed light on a more flexible approach to secularism compared to the rigid form practiced in France:

• Although the term 'Secular' was added to the preamble by the 42nd Constitution Amendment Act of 1976, the spirit of secularism, rooted in Indian cultural ethos, was implicit in it.
• Indian secularism aligns with "Sarva Dharma Sambhava," emphasizing equal respect for all religions. The State maintains a "principled distance" from all religions and intervenes as needed, as seen in instances like the Sabarimala Temple and Triple Talaq issues.
• Secularism is considered part of national identity in both India and France. However, French minorities may feel targeted by "laicite" (secularism), while Indian minorities view secularism as their best protection, preventing differential treatments and phobias.
• In India, the state and religion can interact and intervene within legally prescribed and judicially settled parameters, a contrast to the French model.
• Unlike France, where the state cannot provide financial support to religious community-run educational institutions, India allows state assistance to such institutions.
• India has policies like setting up Departments of Religious Endowments and Wakf Boards, and appointing Trustees, which involve the state in religious affairs — a practice not seen in France.
• While France aims to confine religion to the private sphere, Indian secularism accommodates different communities with special rights, such as Muslims having personal laws and Sikhs being allowed to carry Kirpans (knives).
• Indian secularism, rooted in cultural antecedents, promotes peaceful coexistence of different religions. This is evident in the relatively lower radicalization and ISIS recruitment compared to Western counterparts.
• Indian secularism is not an end but a means to address religious plurality, emphasizing harmonious coexistence in the era of globalisation.

Q6: Implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based projects/programmes usually suffers in terms of certain vital factors. Identify these factors and suggest measures for their effective implementation. (Governance)
Ans: Misgovernance has been a major issue that has marred the effective implementation of government schemes and policies. Therefore, the government has been spearheading radical digitisation to induce economic inclusiveness and social transformation, through initiatives like 'Digital India,' 'Make in India,' and 'Skill India.'
However, the implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based programs usually faces another set of complex challenges.
Challenges in Implementation of ICT based Programs

• Low Digital Literacy: The illiteracy rate in India is more than 25-30%, and digital literacy is almost non-existent among more than 90% of India’s population.
• Poor Internet Connectivity: Rural India suffers from poor internet penetration due to a lack of electricity and poor network quality. This has led to difficulties in Aadhaar Enabled Payment Services (AEPS) and last-mile delivery of services.
• Problems in Common Service Centres: Lack of proper infrastructure facilities, unavailability of skilled workforce, a huge population to serve, and unavailability of last-mile connectivity are some common issues faced by CSCs in India.
• Errors and Omissions in Technology Implemented: Issues related to identity mismatch and denial of services to beneficiaries. For example, cases where senior citizens have been denied ration via PDS shops due to fingerprints mismatch.
• Non-inclusive Nature of Technology Used: Problems faced by senior citizens, differently-abled, illiterate persons due to the complex design of ICT-based solutions.
• Privacy Concerns: Program implementation using digital technology requires authorization for the collection and usage of public information on a large scale. Since privacy is a fundamental right, there are concerns related to mishandling and misuse of user information.
• Data Theft and Online Security: Cybersecurity issues like cyber attacks, data theft can cripple sensitive government digital infrastructure like servers, power supply, communication links, etc.
• Geographical and Weather-Related Problems: Population residing in difficult terrains like the North Eastern hilly region, islands of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep are difficult to reach. Extreme weather events like cyclones, tsunamis, etc., can hamper key communication and mobile internet services.

Measures for Effective Implementation

• Creating Suitable Infrastructure: Increasing the number of Common Services Centres and addressing connectivity issues should be the first priority.
• Increasing Investment in Human Capital Formation: Improving digital literacy among rural youth. Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA), which envisages making one individual digitally literate in every rural household, is a step in the right direction.
• Changes in Design and Structure of Technological Solutions: Government websites should be made user-friendly so that they can be used by differently-abled and senior citizens.
• Mandating Digital Literacy in School Curriculum: Co-curricular activities on the lines of IT Club ‘e-Kidz’ formed by students of the Government Upper Primary School at Koothattukulam in Kerala.
• Involving Private Sector Organizations: Corporates can be asked to spend their CSR funds on digital training and providing technological solutions for societal needs.
• Role of NGOs and Civil Society Groups: Akshaya Patra Foundation digitized their kitchen, enabling real-time data collection for serving food to more than 1.76 million children across 12 states in India.

Even though there are several challenges in the effective implementation of such programs, the benefits of ICT-based solutions cannot be neglected. It helped to save revenue for the exchequer by plugging leakages, weeding out ghost beneficiaries, targeted delivery of services in real-time, etc. It has improved transparency, accountability, and last-mile delivery of basic services to the citizens.
Hence, if the challenges and lacunae of ICT-based programs are effectively tackled, e-governance can prove to be an effective tool in bringing social transformation, thereby realizing the dream of an inclusive and prosperous India.

Q7: On what grounds a people’s representative can be disqualified under the Representation of Peoples Act, 1951? Also mention the remedies available to such person against his disqualification.
Ans: The Representation of the People Act, 1951, outlines the procedures for conducting elections to the Parliament and State Legislature. It establishes criteria for qualifications, disqualifications, and mechanisms for dispute resolution related to such elections.

According to the Act, a person is disqualified if he/she:

• Is found guilty of specific election offences or corrupt practices;
• Is convicted for an offence resulting in imprisonment for two or more years;
• Fails to submit an account of election expenses on time;
• Has an interest in government contracts, works, or services;
• Is a director, managing agent, or holds an office of profit in a corporation where the government holds at least 25% share;
• Has been dismissed from government service for corruption or disloyalty;
• Has convictions related to promoting enmity, bribery, or social crimes like untouchability, dowry, and sati.

The Act also provides remedies against disqualification:

• Election petitions, heard in the High Court with appeal to the Supreme Court, serve as a mechanism for grievance redressal.
• The President (for Parliament members) and the Governor (for State legislature members) have the final authority to decide on disqualifications based on the advice of the Election Commission of India.
• The Election Commission, during an enquiry, holds powers similar to a civil court for summoning and enforcing attendance of individuals or evidence.
• After disqualification, the Election Commission may, on certain grounds, remove or reduce the period of disqualification.

Q8: Parliament’s power to amend the constitution is limited power and it cannot be enlarged into absolute power”. In light of this statement explain whether parliament under Article 368 of the constitution can destroy the Basic structure of the constitution by expanding its amending power
Ans. Article 368 of the Indian Constitution grants the Parliament the authority to amend, add, vary, or repeal any provision of the Constitution following the prescribed procedure. This power is essential to address challenges and fulfill the nation's requirements for growth and development.
However, in the process of amending the Constitution under Article 368, the Parliament has, on occasion, exceeded constitutional limits by encroaching into areas related to federal relations between the Union and States, individual liberties, and, to a certain extent, misusing Article 368 itself. Notable instances include amendments like the 25th and 42nd Constitutional Amendment Acts, which have raised concerns about the principle of constitutionalism.
In response, the Supreme Court intervened to establish a harmonious balance between fundamental rights and Directive Principles, giving rise to the doctrine of the 'basic structure' of the Constitution.
The emergence and application of the 'basic structure' doctrine can be observed in the following Supreme Court judgments:

• Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): The Supreme Court ruled that Parliament's power to amend the Constitution is limited and cannot alter its 'basic structure.' The Constitution's basic features cannot be threatened or destroyed, and Parliament cannot expand its amending power to repeal or abrogate constitutional provisions under Article 368.
• Minerva Mills v/s Union of India Case (1980): The Supreme Court struck down clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 inserted by the 42nd Amendment, as they were deemed to destroy the essential features of the Constitution's basic structure.
• Chandra Kumar v/s Union of India (1997): The judgment asserted that every provision of the Constitution could be amended, provided the basic foundation or structure of the Constitution was not damaged or destroyed.

Thus, Parliament's power to amend the Constitution is restricted to ensure the preservation of the Constitution's essence envisioned by the founding fathers of India. Importantly, the doctrine of basic structure does not undermine the legislative competence of Parliament; instead, it reinforces the supremacy of the Constitution and upholds its spirit.

Q9: "The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self-government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process." Comment.
Ans: A million women have been elected at the village, block, and district levels, following the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, which reserved 33 percent of seats in Panchayati Raj Institutions for women. The process of decentralization has provided representation, but representation has not always led to their participation in the Indian political process.

Patriarchal Character of Indian Political Process

• The practice of “Sarpanchpatis”: The effective political power and decision making are wielded by husbands or other male relatives of elected women representatives. This makes the intended empowerment of women through reservation infructuous.
• Rubber stamps: Most of these women are just rubber stamps with the men in their house—can be the husband, father, or the son—running the show. They also work as proxies for rural elites hence restricting their autonomy.
• Lack of exposure of women themselves to politics and the absence of any experience in exercising their political responsibilities hinder their participation. Since most women are illiterate and do not have any training of handling technical issues and financial deals, they have no option but to take assistance from male family members.
• Stereotypes and traditional norms: This relegates women to the domestic sphere and dissuades them to engage in public affairs. Caste and class factors also play a key role that restrict women to take leadership roles.
• The burden of household responsibilities, purdah (veil) system, etc adversely affect their performance.

However, there have also been many positive impacts of women representation:

• Women have done considerable development work on the ground. For example, the women sarpanch of Dhani Miyan Khan Gram Panchayat in Haryana built a training centre for women and ensured that every village child went to school.
• Elected women representatives are also more accessible than their male counterparts who are often not around.
• It has been seen that though women lacked confidence initially, exposure to local politics gave them new confidence to take independent decisions and not become a proxy of male candidates.
• There has been a marked improvement in social development parameters such as education and health where panchayats are led by women.

Way forward

• Capacity Building of Elected Women Representatives (EWR) and Functionaries of PRIs: This would prepare women to discharge multiple roles, enabling them to raise local priorities to the planning process.
• Strengthening women’s groups and building networks: Formation of women’s forums and networks to develop a sense of solidarity amongst the women.
• Institutionalisation of mechanisms to strengthen the capacity building of EWRs to better understand and perform their functions.
• Mobilisation of community and strengthening the processes of constituency building to enable women to better articulate their voices and participate in the electoral process.

The reservation of women at the local level has had various social and developmental impacts like promotion of nutrition, sanitation drive, behavioral changes, etc. Also, women are more aware of their rights now which could be seen in women voters outnumbering men voters in states like Bihar. However, women’s participation in politics in a true sense is still to be realized. Their participation in the political process is a matter of human right and a key in deepening our democracy. It would also help India in realizing the SDG-5 (Sustainable Development Goal) that aims to end gender inequality in all forms.

Q10: “The Attorney-General is the chief legal adviser and lawyer of the Government of India.” Discuss.
Ans: The Constitution under Article 76 has provided for the office of the Attorney-General for India (AGI). He is appointed by the President and holds the office during the pleasure of the President. He must be a person who is qualified to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court.
As the chief legal adviser of the Government of India, the Attorney-General has the following duties:

• To give advice to the Government of India on legal matters, which are referred to him by the President.
• To perform other duties of a legal character that are assigned to him by the President.
• To discharge the functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law.

The AGI is the highest law officer in the country and acts as the lawyer of the Government of India. Through a notification of 1950, he has been assigned the following duties by the President:

• To appear on behalf of the Government of India in the Supreme Court and high courts.
• To represent the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under Article 143 of the Constitution.

Along with these duties, the AGI also has the right of audience in all courts in the territory of India. He also enjoys all the privileges and immunities that are available to a member of Parliament.
However, the Attorney-General is not the full-time counsel of the Government. He does not fall in the category of government servants, and he is not debarred from private legal practice. But, he should not advise or hold a brief against the Government of India, and he should not defend accused persons in criminal prosecutions without the permission of the Government of India.
Thus, the duties and privileges of the AGI, combined with the limitations imposed on him, make him the chief legal adviser and lawyer of the Government of India. Nevertheless, the separate law minister in the Central cabinet to look after legal matters at the government level, to some extent, gives the office of AGI a subordinate position.

Q11: Individual Parliamentarian’s role as the national law maker is on a decline, which in turn, has adversely impacted the quality of debates and their outcome. Discuss.

Ans: The Rights of Transgender Persons Bill, 2014 was introduced as a private member’s Bill by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam MP Tiruchi Siva, and passed by the Rajya Sabha in April 2015. It was the first time in four decades that the Rajya Sabha had passed a private member’s Bill. The Bill brought into picture the plight of transgenders in the country and mainstreamed the issue in the public debate.
Ministers or parliamentarians representing a political party are often bound by populist decision making, election manifestos, and the ideology that governs the party. Individual parliamentarians or the private members are free from such boundations and offer a more fertile ground, on the floor of the Parliament, for dissent and debate around various issues that affect the nation.
However, the Individual Parliamentarian’s role as national law maker has been on a decline of late. From 2014-2018 about 900 private member Bills were introduced in the Parliament but not even 2% of these bills were discussed.In a mature parliamentary system, all ideas should be debated and decided upon. While the legislative ideas piloted by the government get discussed, the ideas of individual MPs get accumulated and more than often remain ignored.

Reasons for the Decline

• A successful passing of a private member’s Bill is often perceived by many as incompetence on the part of the government and intrusion into the respective Ministry’s domain. If such a legislation is seen getting support in Parliament, the government requests the MP to withdraw it and promises to introduce it as a Government Bill instead.
• Without support from the ruling party or a party that commands majority, it becomes impossible to pass a private member’s Bill especially in the Lok Sabha.
• There has also been a shift to law-making by ordinance, which completely bypasses the formal route of debate and discussions. For e.g., the promulgation of the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Ordinance, 2018.
• Even individual parliamentarians are obliged to toe the party line, through regulatory frameworks like the Anti-Defection Act. This discourages any deviation from the party decision and takes out the possibility of diverse perspectives that parliamentarians as individuals can offer.
• Quality of the elected Individual Parliamentarians also affect the quality of debate and discussions in the house. According to the Association for Democratic Reforms’ report (2014), 30% of sitting MPs and MLAs were facing some form of criminal proceedings, and only 0.5% were convicted of criminal charges in a court of law.
• Currently, a large part of the voting population views their representatives as their problem solvers. So they are willing to vote for a candidate who can get things done ignoring his involvement in a crime.

Way Forward

• The Anti-Defection Act needs to be recast, and used only in the most exceptional circumstances, while allowing MPs greater freedom of self-expression.
• The UK, for example, has the concept of a free vote allowing MPs to vote as they wish on particular legislative items. This in effect allows voting in line with the parliamentarians’ conscience, judgement and interests of her electorate.
• Research staff and resources should be increased for Individual Parliamentarians as the availability of expert in-house advice can further boost their ability to contribute to the national law making process.
• People’s perception of what they want from their representative should change so that MPs can be viewed as lawmakers with character and integrity. This requires a fresh pool of candidates who can appeal to the voters by their abilities as good lawmakers with innovative ideas.

However, apart from paying respect and giving encouragement to the legislations framed by the Individual Parliamentarians, several other issues also need to be addressed to improve the overall quality of discussions in the Indian Parliament and in governance in India. For eg, Members of Parliament have to address their low attendance and increase their engagement in the discussions. Similarly, they have to utilise the limited parliamentary time for proceedings judiciously without unnecessary disruption.

Q12: ‘In the context of neo-liberal paradigm of development planning, multi-level planning is expected to make operations cost-effective and remove many implementation blockages.” Discuss. (Governance)
Ans: India underwent a transition in its developmental planning from macro policy planning to neo-liberal policies in the 1990s. There has also been a gradual shift towards Multi Level Planning in recent times. Multilevel planning integrates decision-makers at all spatial levels in the planning process through negotiations, deliberations, and consultations. This makes policies relevant and need-based. It also sets up process mechanisms/institutions for affecting such cooperation at each required stage.

Cost-effectiveness operations and better Implementation

• Tackling Corruption: Through empowerment and involvement of local bodies, various discrepancies in developmental implementation can be solved. This can help enormously in increasing the effectiveness of poverty alleviation programmes as could be seen through the stellar example of MGNREGA.
• Simplification of the implementation process: This is done by ensuring appropriate role clarity, removing overlapping jurisdictions and establishing necessary linkages across sectoral departments. This will reduce the red-tapism in the administrative setup.
• Reducing Planning-Implementation Mismatch: The planning process will access the capacity of administration and local institutions to implement the objectives of the macro-plan on the ground. Thus it would help in need better outcome and reduce mismatch.
• Active people’s participation: It incorporates a mechanism to intensively engage with people to make more relevant policies. This helps to access the needs and interests of people who are intended to be the beneficiaries of the developmental process.
• Deepen democratic traditions: Multi-Level planning would create a sense of ownership among various administrative units. This would also empower the district level planning committee to contribute to overall policymaking. It deepens the democratic tradition in policymaking and its implementation.
• Reducing Regional disparities: Decentralised planning will help suitability of the implementation strategies and resource allocation for desired outcomes. It would increase the effectiveness of government schemes.
• Better supervision and monitoring: Multi-level planning help in making people and lower administration an active stakeholder in the developmental process. Such planning improves the supervision and monitoring of scarce government resources.
• Promote competitive and cooperative federalism: Strong emphasis is given on participatory development action from the local level upwards.

Way forward

• Promoting Evidence-based planning: It harnesses the knowledge gained from data and information and using it to optimize our planning process and improve results.
• Training of Local Government officials in policy making: This would enable their active participation in the policymaking process and its implementation.
• Revamping District Planning Committee: This is an essential component in the process of decentralised planning as they hold consultation, debate and deliberation and integrates consensus-based choices.

Niti Aayog has taken various initiatives to develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level and aggregate these progressively at higher levels of government. Similarly, Aspirational District Scheme is also an innovative step in the direction of multi-level planning and implementation. Going further, more such steps should be taken to usher good governance in the country.

Q13: The need for cooperation among various services sectors has been an inherent component of development discourse. Partnership bridges the gap among the sectors. It also sets in motion a culture of ‘collaboration’ and ‘team spirit’. In the light of statements above examine India’s development process. (Governance)
Ans. India continues to remain one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Despite recent slowdown, India’s growth of real GDP has been high with average growth of 7.5% in the last five years. As per Economic Survey 2018-19, the services sector accounts for 54% of India GVA. FDI equity inflows into the services sector account for more than 60% of the total FDI equity inflows into India.

Components of Indian services sector

There are twelve identified sectors where the government wants to give focused attention for promoting their development which are:

• Education Services
• Health & Wealth Services
• Accounting & Finance Services
• Financial services
• Tourism & Hospitality Services
• Transport & Logistics Services
• Legal Services
• Telecommunication Services
• Media & Entertainment services
• IT & IT enabled services
• Consultation & Related engineering services
• Environmental services

Cooperation among various services sub-sectors

Initiative of Bharatmala project not only provide connectivity through better transportation services but also creates employment in construction sector thereby promoting tourism in remote areas.

• UDAAN scheme to boost air connectivity not only promotes regional development but also leads to growth in housing and real estate sector, construction, building materials, tourism, etc.
• ISRO’s technology of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries for electric vehicles (EV) is being used in the automobile sector.
• Increasing digital connectivity through BharatNet project benefitted education and health services in rural areas.
• e-Commerce services reaching the rural areas through increased mobile internet connectivity.
• Initiatives like Start-up India giving boost to start-ups in multiple domains like health care, inter-city cab services, online food delivery businesses, etc.
• Investment in higher education produces high quality IT professionals needed for the fast growing IT services sector.

Hence, different sectors have functional inter-linkages and investment in one sector creates multiplier effect benefitting the entire economy.

Cooperation at leadership level

The fastest growing Indian economy provides vast opportunity for collaboration among different departments of the government and with businesses as well. This can be seen in India’s development process through the following examples:

• Government initiative to provide focused attention to 12 identified Champion services sectors through partnership at different levels.
• Introduction of GST required collaboration among centre, states, and with business groups.
• Introduction of Government e-Marketplace as a technology driven platform to facilitate procurement of goods and services by various ministries and agencies of the government.
• NITI Aayog facilitating implementation of programmes and focus on technology upgradation and capacity building, fostering better inter-ministry coordination and better centre-state coordination.

Services sector not only promotes economic growth but also creates opportunity for development in human capital. Thus, India’s huge demographic dividend can only be productively utilized if there is a culture of ‘collaboration’ and ‘team spirit’ at all levels of governance architecture.

Q14: Despite the consistent experience of high growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive. (Social Justice)
Ans: Human development is increasingly considered the ultimate goal of development, encompassing dimensions like life expectancy, education, standard of living, healthcare, and addressing inequalities. The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) and the World Bank's Human Capital Index are key measures, while economic growth is typically gauged by Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or gross national product. There exists a strong correlation between economic growth and human development, as economic growth provides the necessary resources for sustained improvements in human development.
India, one of the largest economies globally, faces challenges in human development. According to the UN HDI report 2018, India ranks 130 out of 189 countries. While there have been improvements in life expectancy and school enrollment, the gross national income per capita also increased significantly. The World Bank's Global Human Capital Index 2019 places India at 115th out of 157 nations, indicating that a child born in India is expected to be only 44% productive when grown up, even with education and healthcare.
Reasons for the lack of human development include:

• Unequal Distribution of Wealth and Non-inclusive Growth: A significant concentration of wealth among the top 1% has led to high inequality in India, hindering inclusive growth.
• Jobless Growth: Economic growth hasn't translated into sufficient employment opportunities, with high unemployment rates and a skill gap in the labor force.
• Dismal Condition of Education and Health: India spends relatively low percentages of GDP on education and health, resulting in poor learning outcomes, high dropout rates, and health challenges, including high infant and maternal mortality rates.

Way Forward

• The government needs to increase public expenditure on health and education, aligning with the National Health Policy 2017 and Draft Education Policy 2019 targets.
• Holistic reforms in education should focus on both the Right to Education and the Right to Learning.
• Promotion of preventive healthcare through initiatives like Ayushman Bharat is essential.
• Efforts should be directed at promoting labor-intensive sectors, integrating skill frameworks with industries to enhance employability.
• Addressing the digital divide is crucial for socio-economic progress.

In conclusion, human development and economic growth share a cause-and-effect relationship. Investing in human capital is essential for achieving the goal of becoming a $5 trillion economy and addressing the current economic slowdown in India.

Q15: There is a growing divergence in the relationship between poverty and hunger in India. The shrinking of social expenditure by the government is forcing the poor to spend more on non-food essential items squeezing their food budget. Elucidate. (Social Justice)
Ans: Since the economic reforms, Urban Head Count Ratio (HCR) poverty in India decreased from 32% in 1993-94 to 21% in 2009-10. The decline in poverty in rural India has been even more remarkable, with HCR dropping from 50% to 34% during the same period. However, this positive trend becomes uneasy when confronted with another set of facts on the prevalence of hunger (or under-nutrition) in the country.
Despite an increase in real income over the last two decades, overall calorie consumption and nutritional intake have not proportionally increased. According to the Global Hunger Index, India ranks second after South Sudan in wasting (low weight for height) among children. Additionally, millions of children and adults suffer from "Hidden Hunger."
The poor are spending more on education, healthcare, transportation, fuel, and lighting. The share of monthly expenditure devoted to these items has risen at a pace that has absorbed all the increase in real income over the past decades, leading to a 'Food Budget Squeeze.' A significant reason for this is the shrinking social expenditure by the government, making the urban and rural poor dependent on market prices for essential non-food items like education and healthcare, which are typically high.
Social sector spending in India has consistently been low compared to other countries. According to the National Health Profile 2018, India spends 1.02% of the gross domestic product on public healthcare, significantly less than other countries like Maldives (9.4%), Sri Lanka (1.6%), Bhutan (2.5%), and Thailand (about 2.9%). In education, India's public investment is around 2.7% of GDP, whereas it is 3.4% in Sri Lanka and 7.4% in Bhutan.
Another contributing factor is the large-scale migration of rural working people to urban centers or other rural areas in search of work. Much of this migration is temporary and seasonal, involving relatively long distances, impacting the expenditure patterns of households. The trend towards a mobile labor force means higher costs of transportation, communication with work sites, and a lack of traditional non-market food sources when away from home.
Hunger persists in India due to a decline in access to non-market food sources, a preference for 'better-tasting, more expensive' calories, and increased spending on luxury items like radio, TV, and mobile phones, as economist Abhijit Banerjee notes in his book "Poor Economics."
Talks of Universal Basic Income and replacing food subsidies with Direct Benefit Transfer are gaining traction. However, these measures may exacerbate the hunger crisis by exposing the poor to market volatility.
Economists Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze distinguish two aspects of social security — "protection" and "promotion." While protection denotes safeguarding against a fall in living standards through ill health or accidents, promotion focuses on enhanced living conditions or "capability building." The government needs to address both aspects by increasing expenditure on education to 6% of GDP, as recommended by the Kasturirangan committee, and meeting the target of spending 2.5% of GDP on health, assisting the poor in focusing on nutrition

Q16: Performance of welfare schemes that are implemented for vulnerable sections is not so effective due to absence of their awareness and active involvement at all stages of policy process. Discuss. (Social Justice)
Ans: The welfare schemes are designed to provide the necessary means for the development of individuals, groups, or a community. Generally, they are targeted towards the vulnerable and marginalized section of society.
However, it is observed that the benefits intended to be delivered to the people through these schemes do not reach the beneficiaries because of weaknesses in administrative planning, delivery mechanism, and lack of awareness among the targeted groups. It is also observed that many development projects and programs have failed in the past due to inadequacies in design, implementation, involvement, and general awareness about the policy in the public.

Ineffectiveness of the Policies

• Weak professional support to design, implement, and monitor schemes at national, state, and local levels.
• Too realistic or too optimistic assumptions, based on technical and non-technical parameters without the knowledge of the local situation, proper database, and resource constraints, making the policies suffer at last.
• Poor policy formulation due to the unawareness about the vulnerable sections and area-specific approach to handle distinct groups.
• No systematic attempt to identify people who need welfare schemes, determine their needs, address them, and enable them properly.
• Inadequate analysis of environmental and rehabilitation implications.
• Delays in clearances from regulatory authorities for land acquisition and in procurement of resources due to poor planning and coordination.
• Inability of the project management to take prompt decisions on various levels of policy making even if they are necessary to achieve the objectives.
• There is no consistent approach in the design of delivery mechanisms and do not provide flexibility needed for different development levels of a policy.
• Lack of strict time frames, financial mechanisms, and inter-agency cooperation pose challenges.
• Most of the schemes are unrelated to each other with little horizontal convergence or vertical integration resulting in conflicts.
• Policies and programmes are not evaluated on their outcomes instead focus stays on monitoring finances.
• No method to ensure that policies reach everybody they are meant for.

The quality of the policy framework and the effectiveness of the implementation of the policies are as important as the availability of resources for the realization of the intended policy objectives. Availability of funds alone is not sufficient for tackling socio-economic problems like poverty and backwardness. Both implementing bodies as well as the benefiting people have to be aware of each other's situations and work harmoniously.