UPSC Mains Previous Year Questions 2019: GS1 History | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Q1: Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in Gandhara art. (Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: 
Gandhara Art: Gandhara art, a form of Buddhist visual expression, flourished from the 1st century BCE to the 7th century CE in present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. The region, influenced by various kingdoms, gave rise to a diverse art school, blending Bactrian, Parthian, and local Gandhara traditions. Notably, the Scythians and Kushanas, especially Kanishka, were the principal patrons of this artistic tradition.

Features Borrowed from Greco-Bactria:

• The Gandhara school embraced anthropomorphic elements from Roman religion, portraying the Buddha with a youthful, Apollo-like face and attire resembling Roman imperial statues—a departure from earlier non-human representations of Buddha.
• Characteristic features included wavy hair in a top knot, occasional facial hair, urna (a dot or third eye) between the eyebrows, elongated earlobes, and a garment with thick pleats covering both shoulders, along with a well-defined muscular body.
• Incorporation of motifs and techniques from classical Roman art, such as vine scrolls, cherubs with garlands, tritons, and centaurs.

West and Central Asiatic Influences:

• Gandhara art integrated features from West Asiatic and Central Asiatic traditions, like disc-shaped attributes behind Buddha's head associated with solar deities in Persian and Greek art.
• Figures wearing conical caps resembling Scythian designs and the regular depiction of fire worship, possibly derived from Iranian sources.

The amalgamation of foreign elements elevated Gandhara art to great artistic heights, enabling the first naturalistic portrayal of the human form in Indian art history. Noteworthy physiognomic features, such as calm expressions, sharp outlines, and smooth surfaces, became central to the artistic allure of Gandhara.

Q2: The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British Rule. Elucidate. (Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: 
Introduction: Quoting Eric Stokes from 'The peasant armed: the Indian Revolt of 1857,' C.A. Bayly emphasizes that the Indian Rebellion was not a singular movement but a multitude of movements. During the initial century of British rule, a series of uprisings, termed "restorative rebellions" by Kathleen Gough, were instigated by disaffected local rulers, Mughal officials, or dispossessed zamindars.

In the century preceding 1857, over 40 major rebellions, alongside numerous minor ones, occurred. However, these were localized, each having distinct motives and remaining isolated from one another.

Peasant Uprisings

• Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions, Bengal & Bihar (1770-1820s): Periodic confrontations involving nearly 50,000 participants at the peak of insurgency.
• Revolt of Raja Chait Singh, Awadh (1778-81): Aimed at restoring existing agrarian relations, persisting until the 1830s.
• Polygar Rebellions, Andhra Pradesh (1799-1805): Feudal lords (Polygars) and peasants resisted Company’s tactics on a significant scale.
• Paika Rebellion, Odisha (1817): Armed rebellion led by Bakshi Jagabandhu against the Company’s rule.
• Fairazi Movement, Eastern Bengal (1838-1848): The first-ever no-tax campaign led by Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian, persisting until the 1870s.

Tribal Uprisings

• Bhil Uprisings, Khandesh (1818-31): Bhils rebelled against British occupation, suppressed in 1819, but unrest lingered until 1831.
• Kol Uprising, Chhota Nagpur & Singhbhum region, Bihar & Orissa (1831-32): Characterized by plunder and arson, with a significant impact on the region.
• Santhal Uprising, Eastern India (1855-56): An effective tribal movement against British policies in Bihar, Orissa, and Bengal.

Conclusion: The culmination of a century of economic exploitation, political subjugation, discriminatory policies, religious interference, and the suppression of uprisings led to the 1857 revolt. This provided a platform for discontented leaders of earlier rebellions to voice their opposition against the Company.

Q3: Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national identity. (Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: 

Nineteenth-century Transformations in India: The 19th century witnessed profound changes in Indian society and politics due to the expansion and consolidation of British imperialism. Indians became aware that their interests were being subordinated to those of the British authority.

The impact of modern Western culture, coupled with the consciousness of defeat by a foreign power, sparked a new awakening. Modern education systems introduced the educated classes to ideas of equality, liberty, and nationalism. The educated Indians, products of modern education, started critically evaluating their society, aiming to restore the nation's lost identity.

This cultural shift, expressed through social and religious reforms, was encapsulated in the term 'Indian Renaissance.' It denoted a period of transitioning values, evolving social sensibilities, and a resurgence in cultural creativity.

A significant aspect of this movement was the examination of the past and an evaluation of traditions to address contemporary challenges. Figures like Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Narayana Guru aimed to eradicate social obscurantism, religious superstitions, and irrational rituals. Their common goal was the transformation of existing social and cultural conditions, especially concerning irrational religious practices and the plight of women.

The Renaissance aimed to 'purify' and 'rediscover' an Indian civilization aligned with European ideals of rationalism, empiricism, monotheism, and individualism. It sought to demonstrate that Indian civilization was not inferior to the West and, in certain spiritual aspects, even superior.

Evidence of this quest for a superior national culture was evident in the rise of patriotic regional literature, the emergence of new art forms, the pursuit of purer classical music, and the construction of new ideals of womanhood. Literary figures such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Tagore, Iqbal, and Subramaniya Bharati provided leadership with imagination and fervor.

The movement not only emphasized beauty and nationalism but also presented India in terms of its spirit, philosophy, arts, poetry, music, and diverse ways of life. The pride in the spiritual essence of Indian civilization, in contrast to the material culture of the West, motivated Indians to confront the colonial state in an emerging public space. This laid the ideological foundation for modern Indian nationalism in the late 19th century.

Q4: Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian Phase. Elaborate. (Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: The Gandhian Phase in the Indian freedom struggle is undeniably noteworthy due to Gandhiji's unique perspective and guidance, emphasizing truth and non-violence in the pursuit of freedom. However, several concurrent factors played a crucial role in reinforcing Gandhi’s efforts and contributing to the nationalist movement.

Factors that strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement:

• Khilafat Movement (1919-22): Launched by Indian Muslims to pressure the British government to preserve the authority of the Ottoman Sultan as the Caliph of Islam. Gandhi and Congress leaders saw it as an opportunity to foster Hindu-Muslim unity, despite introducing religious considerations into the freedom struggle.
• Ideological Differences within Congress: The ideological rift between the Swarajists and No-Changers within Congress brought about significant contributions. No-changers focused on constructive programs like spinning, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, and untouchability removal. Meanwhile, Swarajists won the 1923 Central Legislative Assembly elections, filling a political void during the national movement's resurgence.
• Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas: Under the leadership of J.L. Nehru and S.C. Bose in 1927, Marxism and socialist ideas addressed issues beyond the freedom struggle, emphasizing internal class oppression by capitalists and landlords. This strengthened the voices of the marginalized and poor, connecting them to broader movements.
• Role of Revolutionaries: Figures like R.P. Bismil, C.S. Azad, and Bhagat Singh played crucial roles in advocating for a necessary revolution to uproot the British Empire. Surya Sen's Terrorist Movement in Bengal, particularly notable for the participation of revolutionary women, was part of this wave.
• Trade Unionism and Strikes: The rapid growth of trade unionism, particularly under the All India Trade Union Congress, led to various strikes in 1928, such as Kharagpur, Jamshedpur, and the Bombay Textile Mill strike, making significant contributions to the independence struggle.
• Women's Participation: Women from across India, including Kasturba Gandhi, Vijay Laxmi Pandit, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Bhikaji Cama, emerged as prominent leaders in different facets of the national movement.
• Business Class Participation: Even the business class participated by providing financial assistance and rejecting imported goods, demonstrating a diverse and united front.

While internal ideological differences and fragmentation weakened the movement to some extent, the multidimensional nature of the contributions made it strong by diversifying perspectives. This diversity ultimately contributed to the success of the movement in 1947, where previously unheard voices played a crucial role.

Q5: Assess the role of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during the 1940s. (Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: 

Introduction: Britain never intended to relinquish control over India, but the commitment made to the Indian National Congress during World War Two, promising independence in exchange for Indian resources and military support, coupled with post-war financial and political exhaustion, a change in political power favoring the Congress party, global pressure, and the resilience of Indian leaders, eventually led to Indian independence. However, Britain managed to complicate the process of power transfer, leaving a lasting impact on India.

Cabinet Mission:
Sir Stafford Cripps drafted the Cabinet Mission Plan, proposing a complex system for India with three tiers: provinces, provincial groupings, and the center. The center's authority was limited to foreign affairs, defense, currency, and communication. Three major province groups were outlined, but both Nehru and Jinnah rejected the plan. Lord Wavell authorized an interim government with Nehru as Prime Minister, further straining relations with Jinnah, who resorted to direct action.

Partition:
In July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, calling for the demarcation of India and Pakistan by August 14–15, 1947, within just one month. The Two Nations Theory fueled communalism, leading to large-scale violence and forced migration during partition. Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer unfamiliar with India, was tasked with demarcating boundaries, contributing to the historical communal strife.

Autonomy to Princely States:
British paramountcy over princely states ended in 1947, and existing treaties concluded. Princely states gained independence, with the option to merge with India, Pakistan, or remain independent. Despite efforts by Lord Mountbatten, Nehru, and Patel, princely states like Kashmir, Junagadh, and Hyderabad presented significant challenges during this turbulent period.

Conclusion:
Despite Britain's reluctance to let go of a major resource supplier and market consumer, the odds forced it to grant independence to India. However, the British legacy left behind contentious issues, leading to present-day problems such as the enclave issue with Bangladesh, migration concerns, and the Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan, all rooted in the complexities created during the 1940s.

Q6: Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French revolutions. (World History)
Ans: The American Revolution and the French Revolution are pivotal moments in world history, marking a decisive shift from traditional forms of governance to modern ideals that shaped the destiny of nations.

American Revolution’s Impact on the Modern World

• Principles of liberty and democracy: The Declaration of Independence boldly asserted the equality of all men, inspiring people worldwide to demand liberty and freedom.
• Constitutionalism: The revolution produced the world's first written constitution, influencing numerous nations that borrowed ideas from the American constitution.
• Federalism: The birth of Federalism in the American War of Independence provided a groundbreaking system of government, offering a template for power-sharing in diverse countries with complex political structures.
• Promotion of Human Rights: Thomas Jefferson's "Declaration of Rights" emphasized the importance of human rights, awakening people to their inherent rights.

French Revolution’s Impact on the Modern World

• The democratization of society: The French Revolution, a pan-European revolution, dismantled the ancient European system and eradicated centuries-old feudalism, transforming society from one based on inequality and privileges to a more egalitarian structure.
• Ideals of modernity: The revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity ignited political awareness throughout Europe.
• Secularism: The revolution dismantled the authority, despotism, and corruption of the Church, elevating the importance of intellect and reason.
• Demands for rights: Beyond political freedom, the revolution spurred demands for property rights, freedom of expression, and voting rights, including the call for women's equal rights.
• Nationalism: The revolution fueled the spirit of nationalism and played a pivotal role in the unification of Italy and Germany, while popularizing the concept of democracy.
• Global Impact: The revolutions influenced colonized nations, inspiring movements for freedom and sovereign nation-states. Individuals like Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy responded to the revolutionary ideas emanating from France.

Conclusion: The French and American revolutions not only laid the foundation for egalitarian societies and innovative political structures in their respective nations but also served as the philosophical basis and inspiration for people worldwide. These revolutions underscored the fundamental principles of a civilized world, shaping global aspirations in contemporary times.