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Introduction

The ancient sites of Sitabena and Jogimara Caves are believed to house the oldest amphitheatres globally, showcasing India's deep-rooted history in theatre. According to Bharat Muni's Natya Shastra , Lord Brahma crafted the Natya Veda for the Gods' enjoyment, blending elements from the four Vedas.

The Natya Shastra , thought to be written between 200 BC and 200 AD, is the earliest formal guide on dramaturgy . It outlines ten types of plays, ranging from one-act to ten-act formats, covering all aspects of classical Sanskrit literature.

Classical Sanskrit Theatre

Theatre in ancient India was a narrative art form that blended music, dance, and acting. Central to this were recitation, dance, and music. The term 'nataka' in Sanskrit, derived from 'nata,' meaning dancer, along with terms like Rupaka , Drishyakavya , and Preksakavya , were used to describe different forms of drama.

There were two primary types of plays in ancient India:

  • Lokadharmi : These plays offered realistic depictions of everyday life.
  • Natyadharmi : These featured a more stylised narrative with clear symbolism.
  • The Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosha, a notable philosopher, is regarded as the earliest example of classical Sanskrit drama, comprising nine acts.
  • Bhasa , another significant playwright, is believed to have written 13 plays around the 3rd to 4th century AD.
  • Sudraka introduced conflict in his play Mricchakatika , featuring a hero, heroine, and antagonist.
  • Kalidasa , a renowned Sanskrit playwright, wrote three notable works: Malavikagnimitram , Vikramorvashi , and Shakuntalam , exploring the theme of desire versus duty.
  • Other significant plays include Uttaramacharita and Mahaviracharita by Bhavabhuti, Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta, and Ratnavali by Harshavardhana.
Nitin Singhania Summary: Indian Theatre | History for UPSC CSE

Types of Sanskrit Plays

In classical Sanskrit tradition, plays were divided into 10 types, but the Natya Shastra , a key text, only discusses Nataka and Prakarna .

Nataka : This type of play is based on a heroic theme and usually has a serious tone. The hero is often a king or a divine figure, and the plot revolves around their adventures and challenges. Prakarna : These are more contemporary and relatable plays, often dealing with everyday situations and characters. The themes are lighter, and the focus is on the nuances of human relationships and societal norms.

Nataka and Prakarna have sub-genres. For example, Nataka can include plays like "Sakuntala," where the central theme is the love story between a king and a celestial nymph, and "Vikramorvasiyam," which deals with the love between a king and a celestial nymph. Similarly, Prakarna can include plays like "Madhyama Vyayoga," which deals with a love triangle, and "Dutavakya," which focuses on the theme of loyalty and betrayal.

Overall, Sanskrit plays combined entertainment with religious traditions, featuring a mix of characters with unique roles and personalities.

Characteristics of Classical Sanskrit Plays

  • Length: Typically, these plays consisted of four to seven acts.
  • Endings: Unlike Greek tragedies, Sanskrit plays always concluded happily, ensuring the hero's success or survival.
  • Protagonist: Usually male, the main character achieved his goals by the play's end.
  • Structure: The plays had a defined structure, including an introduction, development, pause, and conclusion.

Progression of the Play

  • Pre-Play Rituals: The play commenced with purva-raga , a ritual performed behind the curtain.
  • Role of the Sutradhar: The stage manager and director, known as the Sutradhar , entered with assistants to perform rituals invoking blessings, dressed in white.
  • Introduction: The Sutradhar introduced the leading lady, announced the time and place, and introduced the playwright.
  • Theatre Capacity: According to Bharata , theatres could accommodate about 400 people, featuring two-storeyed stages.
  • Stage Representation: The upper floor symbolized the celestial sphere, while the lower floor represented the terrestrial sphere.
  • Use of Curtains: Curtains were employed to enhance the play's impact, while masks were not used.

Categories of Characters

  • Nayaka (Hero): The protagonist, portrayed by male actors, could have various personalities such as kind-hearted, calm, or arrogant. In some cases, the hero could be an antagonist like Ravana or Duryodhana .
  • Nayika (Heroine): Played by female actors, the heroine could be a queen, friend, courtesan, or divine lady.
  • Vidusaka (Clown): A comic character, usually a good-hearted friend of the hero, who uses satire to question societal norms. Notably, the Vidusaka spoke in Prakrit , while other characters spoke in Sanskrit .
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List of Notable Ancient Sanskrit Plays

Factors Leading to the Decline of Sanskrit Theatre

  • The decline of Sanskrit theatre can be attributed to several factors:
  • One factor was the shift towards poetry . Writers in Sanskrit began to emphasize poetry, making lyrical compositions more popular than theatrical works.
  • Another factor was the restrictions imposed by orthodoxy . The strict traditional rules governing Sanskrit theatre limited the creative freedom of new writers, prompting them to explore other forms of artistic expression.
  • Additionally, there was a decline in popularity as Sanskrit evolved. The language became more complex and was primarily used by Brahmins, while other languages such as Pali and Prakrit gained prominence.
  • Finally, the influence of Muslim rulers played a role in the decline, as there was a greater appreciation for dance and music over Sanskrit theatre during their reign.
Nitin Singhania Summary: Indian Theatre | History for UPSC CSENitin Singhania Summary: Indian Theatre | History for UPSC CSE

Introduction

  • The process of photocopying involves creating paper copies of documents using a special machine called a photocopier, which employs a technology known as xerography.
  • Xerography is a dry copying technique that utilizes the principles of electrostatics to transfer images from the original document onto paper.

History of Photocopying

  • The invention of the photocopying process can be traced back to the year 1938 when Chester Carlson, an American physicist and inventor, successfully developed the first practical method of electrostatic dry copying.
  • Carlson's groundbreaking work laid the foundation for the later development of commercial photocopying machines.
  • It wasn't until 1950 that the first commercial photocopier, known as the "Photostat," was introduced to the market, marking the beginning of the photocopying industry.
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Theatrical Traditions in India

  • Regional Theatres and Personalities: Theatrical traditions in Bengal and Maharashtra gained prominence during this period. Rabindranath Tagore emerged as a pivotal figure in this realm. Other significant personalities in Indian theatre included Prasanna Kumar Thakur, Girishchandra Ghosh, and Dinabandhu Mitra.
  • Indian People’s Theatre Association (IPTA): Established in 1943 as a cultural wing of the Communist Party, the IPTA played a crucial role in the cultural landscape of the time. Prominent figures such as Balraj Sahni, Prithviraj Kapoor, Bijon Bhattacharya, Ritwik Ghatak, and Utpal Dutt were instrumental in shaping the theatre scene. Although its activities diminished post-1947, the IPTA continues to be active in regions like Chhattisgarh, Punjab, and West Bengal.
  • Prithvi Theatre: Founded in 1944 by Prithviraj Kapoor , Prithvi Theatre began as a travelling theatre with a large ensemble of performers. In 1978, it established a permanent venue in Mumbai , and it remains an essential cultural institution to this day.
  • Sangeet Natak Akademi (1952): This organisation was set up to promote and support the performing arts, including theatre, and has significantly contributed to the development and recognition of Indian theatre.
  • National School of Drama and Traditional Theatre: The National School of Drama has been pivotal in nurturing talent in the field of theatre. Additionally, institutions like Kalakshetra Manipur , established in 1969, and Chorus Repertory Theatre , founded in 1976, were created to safeguard and promote traditional theatre forms across India.
Nitin Singhania Summary: Indian Theatre | History for UPSC CSENitin Singhania Summary: Indian Theatre | History for UPSC CSE
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FAQs on Nitin Singhania Summary: Indian Theatre - History for UPSC CSE

1. What is Classical Sanskrit theatre?
2. Can you provide a list of prominent ancient Sanskrit plays?
Ans. Some of the most famous ancient Sanskrit plays include: 1. Abhijnanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Sakuntala) by Kalidasa. 2. Mrichakatika (The Little Clay Cart) by Sudraka. 3. Mudrarakshasa (The Signet Ring of Rakshasa) by Vishakhadatta. 4. Malavikagnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra) by Kalidasa. 5. Uttararamacharita (The Later Story of Rama) by Bhavabhuti. These plays are highly regarded for their literary excellence, profound themes, and compelling characters.
3. What is folk theatre in India?
Ans. Folk theatre in India refers to the traditional theatrical forms and performances that have been passed down through generations in various regions of the country. These forms are deeply rooted in the local culture, customs, and traditions of the specific communities. Folk theatre includes various styles such as Nautanki, Jatra, Bhavai, Yakshagana, and Bhand Pather. These performances often involve singing, dancing, storytelling, and improvisation, and they address a wide range of social, cultural, and political issues.
4. How is modern Indian theatre different from ancient Sanskrit theatre?
Ans. Modern Indian theatre has evolved from the ancient Sanskrit theatre and has undergone significant changes in terms of themes, styles, and presentation. While ancient Sanskrit theatre focused on mythological stories and religious texts, modern Indian theatre explores a wide range of contemporary social, political, and cultural issues. The language used in modern Indian theatre is not limited to Sanskrit but includes various regional languages and even English. Additionally, modern Indian theatre incorporates elements of Western theatre techniques, such as realistic sets, lighting, and acting styles.
5. What is the significance of Indian theatre in the UPSC exam?
Ans. Indian theatre holds significance in the UPSC exam as it is an essential part of Indian culture and heritage. Questions related to ancient Sanskrit theatre, folk theatre, and modern Indian theatre are often asked in the Art and Culture section of the exam. Understanding the evolution of Indian theatre, its prominent plays, and its contribution to society helps candidates gain insights into the country's rich artistic traditions and cultural diversity.
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