Implementation and control of projects | Management Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction 

• The implementation phase of an MIS (Management Information System) project can commence only when a comprehensive and detailed MIS design has been developed and is ready for execution. This detailed design is essential as it specifies what needs to be implemented, and without it, there is a lack of clarity on how to proceed. 
• It is assumed that the available design for implementation has undergone thorough review and testing for its feasibility, typically conducted as one of the final activities in the detailed design stage. This approach helps minimize the chances of detecting system logic errors late in the process and reduces the need for redesign or changes during implementation. The occurrence of such errors frequently not only adds to the costs but also leads to frustration for the implementation team.

Project Implementation Options  

Following the review, testing, and evaluation of the finalized design, top management grants authorization for the implementation phase. Several approaches to implementation can be considered and selected based on the specific circumstances:

• New System Installation (No existing system):
  • Implement a system in an organization that is just starting up, where there is no existing system to replace.
  • Expect challenges related to system logic errors, debugging, and potential redesign, which should be integral to the implementation efforts.
• Cut-Off and Installation of New System (Existing system in place):
  • Replace the old system with the new one by discontinuing the old system.
  • This method is suitable for very small companies or systems that can be installed quickly (within a day or two).
  • It involves a downtime where neither system is operational during the transition.
• Cut Over by Segments (Existing system in place):
  • Replace small parts or subsystems of the old system with corresponding components of the new system one by one or in groups.
  • Assumes similarity or identical parts in both systems and limited interaction among them.
  • Implies that the "new" system is more of an upgrade rather than an entirely new system.
• Parallel Operation and Cut Over (Existing system in place):
  • Install the new system without discarding the old one.
  • Both systems operate simultaneously for a period, comparing the results of the new system with the old for accuracy and reliability.
  • The new system fully takes over after satisfactory operation, and the old system is eventually discontinued.
  • Offers the advantage of thoroughly checking the new system through continuous comparison but involves duplicated work, making it relatively expensive.
  • Essential in cases where errors in the new system can have costly or reputation-related consequences for the company in the long term.

Steps in Implementation 

The steps in implementation, as outlined later, are applicable to any of the previously mentioned options, with minor adjustments. It is assumed that the design specifications encompass both general and specific details concerning system requirements, including procedures, forms, databases, equipment, personnel, and facilities. The major steps are derived from these specifications, and it's important to note that these steps are not strictly sequential; they often overlap.
The key steps are:

• The Plan: Establish a comprehensive plan based on design specifications.
• Space and Layout: Determine the spatial requirements and layout based on the system design.
• Manpower and Organization of MIS: Define the manpower needs and organize the Management Information System (MIS) accordingly.
• Training for Operators and Users: Provide training for both operators and users based on the system requirements.
• Hardware Equipment Installations: Install the necessary hardware equipment as specified in the design.
• Program Development, Design of Forms and Files: Develop programs and design forms and files in alignment with design specifications.
• Testing: Conduct testing to ensure the system meets the specified requirements.
• Changeover: Implement the system, transitioning from the old to the new based on the design specifications.

The Plan 

• This stage is a precursor to implementation, involving the identification of all necessary activities, their sequence, and interconnections. Time and cost estimates are determined for each activity. In smaller projects, planning and activity sequencing may be done informally or in written form. 
• However, employing tools such as Gantt Charts or network diagrams, including CPM or PERT, proves highly beneficial in visually presenting a comprehensive plan. These visual aids serve as valuable tools for later control functions during the actual implementation stages.

Space and Layout 

• In instances where a new system is being introduced in a completely new company without an existing system, or when replacing an old system, adjustments to floor space and layout become imperative. Even in cases of system replacement, significant revisions to existing floor plans may be necessary, potentially requiring major modifications. The MIS project implementation manager is tasked with estimating floor space needs and creating preliminary layouts based on their expertise and the detailed system design specifications. With the approval of top management, specific space is either acquired or developed/generated.
• The layout planning involves careful consideration of the arrangement of facilities in relation to one another, such as the positioning of computers and terminals. The project manager, in consultation with top management, determines the location of individuals through partitioning, grouping, or, when necessary, allocating separate offices and cabins. Various factors, including the movement of people and equipment, storage requirements, air-conditioning, utilities, safety, and security considerations, play a crucial role in shaping the layout and determining the location of facilities.

Manpower and Organisation of MIS 

• In the initial phase, it is crucial to appoint a project manager, who may later assume the role of overseeing the entire MIS department. Alternatively, someone from accounts, finance, or computer departments can be temporarily delegated with full implementation responsibility as a stop-gap measure. This appointment should occur promptly after the design work, allowing the project manager to spearhead the implementation plan.
• Active involvement of line managers, functional personnel, and operating staff is essential throughout the implementation process. Their engagement should convey a sense of ownership, making them feel that the system being implemented is truly theirs. This active participation should extend from the development and design stages, with continuous involvement advocated for these system users.
• Specialists in systems are allocated to various phases or parts of the implementation, providing assistance to the line personnel (users). Depending on the progress of work, contracts or assignments may be delegated to internal or external groups for tasks like building, painting, and electrical or air conditioning installations.
• Other MIS personnel, including systems managers, analysts, programmers, operating staff, data entry personnel, secretarial staff, and others, should remain engaged as needed, contingent on the progress of the work. A personnel requirement chart should be created, indicating the number of individuals, their skills, qualifications, and whether they are internally available or recruited externally. The chart should also specify the dates when their services would be required according to the implementation plan. Recruitment and selection processes should be pre-planned. In cases where an old system is being replaced, existing employees must be accommodated in suitable positions through restructuring or upgrading. If necessary, additional training should be provided during this transitional period.

Training for Operators and Users 

• Training is a crucial aspect involving two main groups: the MIS department personnel at all levels and the users engaged in various functional areas. Training for MIS department personnel should cover procedures, input and output operations, formats, processing, frequencies, destinations, terminal and equipment operations, regardless of whether a completely new system is being implemented or an old one is being replaced. Through a combination of theoretical input, discussions, and practical training on the actual equipment, operating and supervisory staff must become thoroughly acquainted with their job functions and the overall system. They should have another opportunity, especially during the final stages of implementation, to develop complete familiarity with the installed system and their respective roles.
• Effective user training is essential for fostering acceptance of the new system and ensuring its success. The training may focus on specific languages, packages, or provide a general understanding of the system. Users need to comprehend what the system can do for them in routine and special request scenarios. They should understand how to utilize the system, make requests, and appreciate the available features, especially if new formats are introduced. When terminals are provided, users should be thoroughly trained to utilize them. Understanding changed procedures, codes, and passwords is essential. If there are changes in hardware or software, users need to be familiar with them, specifically concerning their job functions.
• Users can be classified based on factors such as developer versus non-developer, novice versus expert, frequent versus occasional user, and primary versus secondary user. These classifications often overlap, and user training programs must address the specific needs of all user types. The system's utility is enhanced when users genuinely perceive it as helpful and actively utilize its features.

Hardware Equipment Installations 

• The procurement of computer-related hardware is a nuanced and specialized undertaking. Beyond the identification of specific equipment from a diverse array of options in terms of prices, capabilities, and vendors, the decision to buy or lease is a critical aspect. Detailed design provides the related equipment requirements and estimates, and purchase orders should have been initiated earlier, factoring in the estimated supplier time lag. Upon the arrival of the equipment, site preparation work, room layout, air conditioning, electrical connections, communicators, link lines, etc., should be either complete or nearing completion. This ensures minimal time is wasted during installation and the process of making the equipment operational.
• Concurrently, testing of the equipment and training of operating personnel on the new equipment should commence at the earliest possible stage. Additionally, timely orders for tapes, disks, paper, filing cabinets, and other necessary supplies should be placed as required. This comprehensive approach ensures a streamlined and efficient integration of computer hardware into the operational environment.

Program Development, Design of Forms and Flies 

• There are two options available for meeting software requirements: (i) obtaining software packages or (ii) developing software internally. Typically, a balanced approach that combines both options is considered optimal. Smaller companies may opt to purchase most of their software, with some modifications necessary to align it with the company's specific requirements. Alternatively, specialized software development agencies can create custom solutions. In larger companies or those with complex requirements, a majority of the software needs may be addressed through in-house development of programs.
• Forms for inputs, intermediate stages, and outputs are essential to ensure the provision of the "right" information in a manner that facilitates computer storage, retrieval, processing, and user utilization. Even though certain specifications for forms are outlined in the detailed design, the implementation stage provides the first opportunity to practically test and make necessary changes or modifications. Standardized forms benefit end-users and system operating personnel. When a user works directly on a terminal, the screen format should ideally reflect the document layout for input, processing, and output.
• Identification of files and specifications, such as file names, maximum character requirements for each data element, frequency of access, retention characteristics, updating frequencies, and formats, are developed during the detailed design stage. At the implementation stage, computer experts convert these specifications into computer programs, and initial testing is conducted using actual data, known as the creation and testing of the physical file. Testing covers aspects like range, volume, data validation, and file operation procedures, including input, retrieval, and updating.
• Master files, containing data used in routine processing, have a more specific information structure and are relatively permanent. In contrast, transaction files are created for specific transactional purposes and are temporary. Other files may capture and store data about the environment, with less specific information structure. Procedures are developed for file access, input, update, and delete frequencies, data protection, input data validation, as well as indexes and retrieval procedures.

Testing and Changeover 

• Testing is a critical component of the implementation phase, gaining particular significance as it involves real data under actual operating conditions. Its duration can range from 15 to 50 percent of the total system development effort, contingent on the size and complexity of the project. A hierarchical approach to testing is commonly advocated, progressing from individual programs to subsystems and culminating in the overall system.
• At the component level, individual components such as file input forms, programs, output forms, and work procedures are tested using representative or limiting/unusual data to assess accuracy, input and processing range, operating conditions, and reliability. At the individual application level, each application is tested for functioning logic, input-output operations, and other relevant aspects using actual data from the existing data bank. Subsystem-level testing focuses on verifying the multiple inputs, outputs, complex logic interactions, and interfaces of lower-level subsystems within the larger subsystem.
• Throughout these testing levels, difficulties or errors may emerge, necessitating changes in forms, logic, sequence, workflow, output formats, procedures, and subprogram interactions. Cutover marks the actual replacement of the old system with the new system, where the old system is entirely discontinued, and the new system becomes fully operational.
• Despite rigorous testing at each phase and meticulous testing in the final stage of implementation, minor and some major problems may surface when the system faces real-world challenges. The occurrence of errors is inevitable as the system operates in varying combinations of volume, transactions, and conditions that may not have been anticipated. The process of addressing these issues is known as "debugging," which can extend from several days to months based on the system's size and complexity.
• Once the system becomes operational, efficient maintenance is crucial, covering equipment, processing, inputs, and outputs. Maintenance efforts typically account for around fifty percent of the total operating effort for an average system. Problems categorized as errors requiring timely correction fall under maintenance. Additionally, requests for modifications and improvements are anticipated throughout the system's lifecycle.

Precautions in Implementation  

Although the implementation process has been discussed in considerable detail, certain critical aspects deserve further attention, as overlooking them could lead to the failure of many Management Information System (MIS) projects:

• Equipment Consideration: The choice of equipment should align with organizational information needs rather than being limited or driven by available equipment.
• Software Integrity: Software and processing logic must be error-free. Even a small error at any input, processing, or logic stage can result in serious issues. Rigorous planning and review at each stage are essential.
• Testing Rigor: Testing, whether recommended or desired as part of design or implementation, should be meticulous and adhere to established standards. Cutting corners or being careless in this area can have catastrophic consequences.
• Effective Control: Project success depends on the successful completion of numerous small tasks. Task identification, undertaken in the implementation phase, must be carefully monitored for timely, cost-effective, and efficient completion.
• User Participation: Non-acceptance by users has been a prominent cause of MIS failures. Intensive encouragement and solicitation of user participation are essential at all phases, particularly at the culmination stage of the total development process, i.e., implementation. Ensuring users are actively involved and accepting of the system is crucial for success.

These considerations emphasize the need for a holistic and meticulous approach to ensure the success of MIS projects.

Security and Control 

Data and information stored as part of the total Management Information System (MIS) activity represent valuable assets for a company, alongside the costly and valuable physical equipment. Security concerns in MIS encompass both physical asset security and the security of intangible assets, i.e., data. There are three main types of security problems: frauds, sabotage, and accidents and disasters.
Strategies to overcome these security challenges include:

• Control on Physical Access to Equipment:
  • Utilizing standard security procedures, such as building security, proper locking systems, entry restrictions, guards, alarms, etc.
  • In distributed data processing or network environments, maintaining safeguard controls on all terminals poses an additional challenge.
• Access to Data:
  • Preventing unauthorized access to data, irrespective of the validity of physical access to equipment. This involves using specific identification codes or passwords for particular terminals, files, and during specific working hours.
• Work Splitting:
  • Splitting critical work packages, especially in areas where the potential for fraud exists, among more than one person.
• Semi-Disconnected Distributed System:
  • Including procedures in distributed systems to shift processing to alternate locations if a local facility is not functioning. The capability to continue processing at all sites, except the non-functioning one, is termed 'fail-soft' protection.
• Back-up and Recovery (Disaster Management):
  • Preparing for potential errors, failures, fires, floods, accidents, natural disasters, or deliberate damage to equipment, software, and data.
  • Implementing precautions such as safe locations, fire and smoke detectors, alarms, automatic power-off, back-up power supply, and insurance.
  • Incorporating provisions like storing back-up copies of important software and data at alternate sites off-premises, having a back-up recovery plan, arranging alternative usage of equipment facilities, and establishing mutual inter-department or inter-corporation facilities dependence in case of need.
  • Ensuring a back-up supply of forms and other necessary supplies.

By addressing these security concerns comprehensively, companies can safeguard their valuable physical and data assets, ensuring the integrity and continuity of their MIS activities.