Interrelationship with minerals | Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Requirements and the Relationship of Basic Mineral Nutrients

• Mineral elements are essential nutrients with complex interactions between each other and other factors.
• Losses of minerals occur from an animal's body during fasting and must be replenished through the diet.
• Assessing maintenance needs for mineral elements is challenging.
• Deciding if replacing only lower endogenous losses is sufficient remains a dilemma.
• Dietary intake of specific mineral elements and other substances can influence the reduction of endogenous losses.
• For instance, sodium and potassium interact, affecting body conservation based on dietary levels and other factors.

Maintenance Requirements:

• The maintenance requirement for a mineral element is based on replacing endogenous losses.
• For mature horses, the daily dietary calcium requirement for maintenance is 45.5 mg/kg of body weight and phosphorus requirement is 28.6 mg/kg of body weight.
• Net requirements are calculated based on replacing endogenous losses using absorption values.
• For beef cattle, the net maintenance requirement of phosphorus and calcium is estimated based on protein requirements.
• Dairy cattle's daily maintenance needs for calcium are calculated considering metabolic size and calcium absorption.

Requirements for Growth and Production:

• Some mineral elements are necessary for growth and production.
• Mineral requirements for maintenance, growth, and fattening are combined for optimal animal health and productivity.

Amounts of Elements Required by Various Animals

• Young Chicken 
  - Calcium: 9 g/kg
  - Phosphorus: 7 g/kg
  - Magnesium: 0.6 g/kg
  - Sodium: 15 g/kg
  - Potassium: 0.2 g/kg
  - Chlorine: 0.8 g/kg
  - Manganese: 0.055 g/kg
  - Zinc: 0.04 g/kg
  - Copper: 0.004 g/kg
  - Iron: 0.08 g/kg
  - Iodine: 0.00035 g/kg
  - Selenium: 0.0001 g/kg
• Young Cattle 
  - Calcium: 2.6 g/kg
  - Phosphorus: 1.6 g/kg
  - Magnesium: 1 g/kg
  - Sodium: 8 g/kg
  - Potassium: 0.04 g/kg
  - Chlorine: 0.04 g/kg
  - Manganese: 0.01 g/kg
  - Zinc: 0.05 g/kg
  - Copper: 0.00025 g/kg
• Young Sheep 
  - Calcium: 5.2 g/kg
  - Phosphorus: 3.7 g/kg
  - Magnesium: 0.8 g/kg
  - Sodium: 1 g/kg
  - Potassium: 5 g/kg
  - Iodine: 0.04 g/kg
  - Selenium: 0.05 g/kg
  - Copper: 0.005 g/kg
  - Iron: 0.05 g/kg
  - Zinc: 0.0008 g/kg
  - Manganese: 0.0001 g/kg-
• Young Pigs 
  - Calcium: 6 g/kg
  - Phosphorus: 12 g/kg
  - Magnesium: 5 g/kg
  - Sodium: 0.4 g/kg
  - Potassium: 1 g/kg
  - Chlorine: 2.3 g/kg
  - Manganese: 1.3 g/kg
  - Zinc: 0.002 g/kg
  - Copper: 0.06 g/kg
  - Iron: 0.004 g/kg
  - Iodine: 0.06 g/kg
  - Selenium: 0.00014 g/kg
  - Manganese: 0.00015 g/kg

Mineral Requirements in Animal Nutrition

Factors Determining Mineral Requirements 

• Established through the factorial method, balance or growth trials, blood and bone data, or a combination of these methods. Recognize that mineral availability varies with the age of animals within a species.

Example: Beef Cattle 

• Calcium and phosphorus requirements are estimated based on protein needs and storage needs. 
• Calcium need is assumed to be 1.7 times the phosphorus need. 
• Availability of calcium and phosphorus assumed to be 70% in feed.

Mineral Metabolism in Animals

• Minerals have complex nutritional and metabolic interactions.
• Dietary, environmental, and hormonal factors influence mineral absorption and excretion.
• Body can reutilize some minerals like iodine, iron, or calcium from metabolism.
• Availability varies among minerals, e.g., sodium, potassium, and chlorine have high availability.
• Differences in availability of macrominerals like calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium exist among feeds.

Interrelationship of Basic Mineral Nutrients Including Trace Elements

Factors Affecting Iron Absorption: 

• Iron absorption is influenced by various factors such as dietary levels of phosphates, phytates, and calcium. 
• Acids like citric or ascorbic acid play a role in reducing ferric iron to ferrous iron, thereby enhancing its absorption. 
• Iron deficient animals tend to absorb iron more efficiently than those with normal iron levels.

Competition Among Minerals: 

• Minerals with similar chemical properties often compete for metabolic sites. 
• High dietary intake of certain elements can reduce the availability of others, such as copper, calcium, iron, and zinc. 
• Antagonistic relationships exist between various minerals like copper and zinc, calcium and selenium, and selenium and mercury.

Effects of Various Compounds: 

• Phytic acid in non-ruminants reduces zinc availability, especially when combined with high dietary calcium. Interaction among copper, molybdenum, and sulfur impacts copper retention and function in essential sites.

Calcium and its Interrelationship with Other Minerals

Calcium Interaction with Other Minerals: 

• Calcium interacts with phosphorus, magnesium, and vitamin D in the body. 
• High calcium intake can reduce the availability of copper. Lactose promotes calcium absorption and phosphorus utilization.

Factors Affecting Calcium Utilization: 

• Dietary fat can decrease calcium utilization by forming insoluble calcium soaps. 
• Calcium interferes with fat utilization, while oxalates impair calcium availability. 
• The availability of dietary calcium is influenced by skeletal saturation and the activity of hormones like parathyroid and calcitonin.

General Aspects of Mineral Requirements in Domestic Animals

Considerations in Supplementing Minerals: 

• Animal maturity, production stage (e.g., growth, milk production), and mineral composition of the diet influence mineral requirements. Mineral supplements can address deficiencies or imbalances in the diet but are not a cure-all for maximizing production levels.

Balancing Mineral Intake: 

• While many essential minerals are present in most foods, deficiencies in certain elements like potassium, magnesium, copper, cobalt, iodine, and iron can occur. 
• Mineral supplements may be necessary for specific animals like young pigs or chicks to meet their phosphorus needs.

Metabolic Role, Interrelationship, and Deficiency Symptoms of Individual Minerals:

Classification and Essential Function: 

• Minerals are categorized into macroelements and microelements based on their concentration in the body. 
• Both macro and microelements are crucial for metabolic functions related to growth, production, and reproduction.

Impact of Mineral Deficiencies: 

• Insufficient proportions of minerals in the body can lead to deficiency diseases, affecting various physiological functions. 
• Proper proportions of minerals in the body or diet are essential to prevent adverse health effects related to mineral deficiencies.

Essential Minerals: Calcium

Body Content of Calcium: 

• The human body contains approximately 1.2 to 1.5 percent calcium in terms of fresh tissue, 3.5 to 4.0 percent in dry tissue, and 25 to 30 percent in total ash. About 99 percent of the body's calcium is located in the skeleton (bone).

Functions of Calcium: 

• Bone formation, including teeth and growth. 
• Blood clotting. 
• Regulation of heart function and muscle activity. 
• Maintenance of acid-base balance. 
• Control of neuromuscular system irritability. 
• Maintenance of cell membrane permeability.

Functions

Absorption: 

• Calcium is absorbed through active transport in the small intestines, particularly in the upper section. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the diet significantly impacts absorption. The ideal ratio ranges between 1:1 and 2:1. Calcium absorption is influenced by an acidic environment. Increased protein intake enhances calcium absorption. Free fatty acids in the system also affect absorption. 

Metabolism: 

• Vitamin D aids calcium absorption by facilitating active transport across the ileum. Parathyroid hormone plays a role in increasing calcium absorption in the intestines. This hormone prompts the release of calcium from bone to the bloodstream. Another hormone, calcitonin from the thyroid gland, promotes the deposition of calcium ions in bones, helping maintain a consistent calcium level in the blood.

Symptoms of Calcium Deficiency: 

• Conditions resulting from calcium deficiency include rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults leading to bone fragility and fractures, milk fever in cows after giving birth, decreased milk production, and thin-shelled eggs with poor hatchability.

Sources of Calcium: 

• Leguminous grasses, sunflowers, green leafy vegetables (especially legumes), animal by-products like bone meal and meat, and poultry by-products are rich sources of calcium. Green plants ideally contain 40-60 mg of calcium per kg of dry matter, with excess calcium potentially disrupting animal mineral metabolism.

Phosphorus Overview:

• Phosphorus is a vital element found in every cell of the body, with a significant portion combined with calcium in bones and teeth.It plays essential roles in various bodily functions and compounds, with blood serum typically containing 4-12 mg per 100 ml of phosphorus.

Functions of Phosphorus:

• Constituent of Bone and Teeth: Phosphorus is a key component of bone and teeth structure.
• Energy Production: Necessary for energy production through the high-energy compound ATP, crucial for cellular activities.
• Carbohydrate Oxidation: Required for the oxidation of carbohydrates, leading to ATP formation.
• Cellular Membranes: Phospholipids are essential components of cellular membranes, influencing cellular permeability
• .DNA and RNA Synthesis: Phosphorylated compounds are vital for the synthesis of DNA and RNA.

Absorption of Phosphorus:

• In vitro studies demonstrate active phosphorus transport, with molecules moving from lower to higher concentrations.
• Excessive minerals like iron, magnesium, and aluminum can form insoluble phosphates with phosphorus, affecting its availability.Interference with phosphorus absorption can occur with excess calcium and vice versa.
• Cereal grains often contain phosphorus in the form of insoluble phytates, which can be hydrolyzed in some animals for absorption.

Phosphorus Metabolism:

• The calcium-to-phosphorus ratio in the diet influences the absorption and excretion of these elements.
• Imbalance in the ratio may lead to increased excretion of one element when the other is in excess.
• Parathyroid hormone levels affect serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations inversely.

Symptoms of Phosphorus Deficiency:

• Rickets and Osteomalacia: Phosphorus deficiency can result in rickets in young individuals and osteomalacia in adults.
• Pica and Joint/Muscle Issues: Animals with phosphorus deficiency may exhibit pica (depraved appetite), stiff joints, and muscular weakness.
• Effects on Fertility and Growth: Low dietary phosphorus intake is linked to low fertility, reduced milk yield in cows, and stunted growth in young animals.

Sources of Phosphorus:

• Major sources include grains, grain by-products, cakes, bran, sterilized bone-meal, and milk products.
• Phosphorus deficiency may lead to pica, stiff joints, muscular weakness, and other health issues in animals.This comprehensive understanding of phosphorus highlights its crucial roles in the body's structure, function, and overall health.

Understanding Potassium

• Potassium is a crucial intracellular cation that, alongside sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions, is vital for regulating body fluid osmotic balance.
• Nerve and muscle cells have high concentrations of potassium.

Functions of Potassium

• It plays a role in maintaining Acid-Base equilibrium.
• Contributes to regulating osmotic pressure in the body.
• Facilitates nerve transmission.
• Induces relaxation in the heart muscles.
• Activates specific enzymes in the body.
• Essential for carbohydrate and protein metabolism.
• Aids in the uptake of certain amino acids by cells.

Excess and Deficiency

• Excessive dietary potassium is rapidly excreted through urine and can interfere with magnesium absorption and metabolism.
• Potassium deficiency manifests as overall muscle weakness, weak extremities, poor intestinal tone, cardiac weakness, and respiratory muscle weakness.

Potassium Sources

• Plants have high potassium content, with grass containing over 2.5% in dry matter, meeting the body's requirements adequately and making deficiency uncommon.

Sodium Overview

Sodium is predominantly found in extracellular fluid, contrasting with potassium which is more abundant within cells. In the body, most sodium is in body fluids with only a third in the skeleton. 

Functions of Sodium:

• Maintaining body fluid pH: Sodium plays a crucial role in regulating the acidity of body fluids. 
• Regulating body fluid volume: It helps in maintaining the right balance of fluids in the body. 
• Nerve function and muscle contraction: Sodium is essential for nerve signal transmission and muscle contractions. 
• Cell permeability and carrier function: It assists in controlling the passage of substances into and out of cells. 

Regulation

• Sodium metabolism is primarily controlled by aldosterone, a hormone from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone promotes sodium reabsorption in the kidney tubules. 
• Lack of aldosterone can lead to increased sodium excretion, causing deficiency symptoms.

Deficiency Symptoms: 

•  Growth issues: Including failure to grow and reduced utilization of proteins and energy. 
• Dehydration: Resulting in decreased plasma and body fluid volumes. 
• Vascular disturbances: Such as reduced cardiac output and arterial pressure. 
• Corneal keratinization: Abnormal hardening of the cornea. 
• Nervous disorders: Potentially leading to various neurological symptoms. 
• Impact on poultry: Such as reduced egg production and growth rates.

Magnesium Overview

• Magnesium is vital for various physiological functions in the body. It is involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions and plays a role in energy production.

Functions of Magnesium

• Enzyme activation: Magnesium activates enzymes involved in ATP-related reactions. 
• Source of Magnesium: Foods like green leafy vegetables, nuts, and whole grains are good sources. 

Deficiency Symptoms: 

• Magnesium deficiency can manifest as convulsions, muscle spasms, and behavioral changes. 
• Low magnesium levels can lead to health issues associated with muscle and nerve functions.

By understanding the roles of sodium and magnesium, we can grasp how these essential electrolytes contribute to various bodily functions and the potential consequences of their deficiencies.

Chlorine with Elaboration and Examples

1. Discovery and Importance of Chlorine

• Discovery: Chlorine's essential role in human health and nutrition was first demonstrated in 1837 by Orant Kaina, Fatiman, and MaCallam.
• Significance: Leach and Nshsimi's study in 1963 highlighted the detrimental effects of chlorine deficiency in young individuals, showcasing its crucial role in maintaining health.

2. Chlorine in Biological Processes

• Cell Function: Chlorine plays a pivotal role in cell membrane function. For instance, it helps regulate the movement of ions across cell membranes, a process essential for various bodily functions.
• Chlorine Movement: The movement of chlorine within the body is closely linked to the functioning of the nervous system. This movement, known as the primary chloride pump, is vital for maintaining cell membrane potential and signal transmission.

3. Chlorine in MetabolismMetabolic Processes: Chlorine is actively involved in metabolic processes, aiding in the breakdown and utilization of nutrients for energy production.

• Examples: Chlorine's presence is crucial in metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, where it facilitates the conversion of glucose into usable energy molecules like ATP.

4. Industrial and Household Uses of Chlorine

• Disinfection: Chlorine's antimicrobial properties make it a common disinfectant used in water treatment plants and swimming pools.
• Bleaching: In the textile industry, chlorine is utilized for bleaching fabrics, removing stains and achieving desired coloration.
• Chemical Production: Chlorine is a key component in the production of various chemicals like PVC, which is widely used in construction and manufacturing industries.

5. Safety and Handling of Chlorine

• Precautions: Due to its reactive nature, handling chlorine requires caution to prevent harmful exposure.
• Example: Workers in industries utilizing chlorine must adhere to strict safety protocols, including wearing appropriate protective gear and ensuring proper ventilation in work areas.

6. Environmental Impact of Chlorine

• Water Pollution: Improper disposal of chlorine-containing products can lead to water pollution, posing risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health.
• Regulations: Environmental agencies impose regulations on the use and disposal of chlorine-based substances to mitigate adverse environmental impacts.

Copper and Its Significance in Animals

Copper Concentration in Living Organisms: 

• An average adult human or animal typically contains 100-150 mg of copper, equivalent to 1.5 to 2.0 parts per million (ppm). 
• Newborn calves possess a notably higher copper concentration compared to other species, with the liver hosting the largest amount.

Effects of Copper Deficiency: 

• Spontaneous bone fractures can occur due to insufficient copper levels. 
• Enzootic neonatal ataxia manifests as spastic paralysis, hind leg coordination issues, stiff and staggering gaits, swaying hindquarters, and potential paralysis. 
• Rabbits may suffer from alopecia and dermatitis, leading to the loss of crimp in wool fibers. -
•  Cattle in Australia might experience falling disease, marked by macrocytic hypochromic anemia and diarrhoea. 
• Chicks could develop aortic aneurysms. 
• Decreased reproductive capacity and milk yield can be observed in animals with insufficient copper levels.

Sources of Copper: 

• Copper is primarily obtained from the soil, which nourishes crops used as animal feed. Soil copper levels indicate the copper content of crops. 
• Liver and glandular meals contain approximately 90 ppm of copper. 
• Various sources such as corn distillers, dry solubles, dried whey, peanut meal, cottonseed meal, and fish meal are rich in copper.

By ensuring animals receive adequate copper through their diet, farmers can prevent the detrimental effects of copper deficiency on livestock health.

Manganese Concentration in the Body:

• Bones, pituitary gland, pineal gland, lactating mammary gland, liver, gastrointestinal tissue, kidney, and pancreas store the highest concentrations of manganese.
• Blood typically contains 12-18 micrograms of manganese, with about 2/3rd found in blood cells.

Functions of Manganese:

• Manganese is crucial for the functioning of various enzymes like tyrosinase, ascorbic acid oxidase, and uricase.
• It plays a role in haematopoiesis beyond just catalytic functions and is equally distributed between erythrocytes and plasma.
• Manganese is essential for oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, fatty acid synthesis, acetate incorporation into cholesterol, mucopolysaccharide synthesis, amino acid metabolism, and fatty acid synthesis activation.

Manganese Absorption and Excretion:

• The absorption and fecal excretion of manganese depend on the formation of natural chelates.
• Manganese is primarily excreted in the feces via bile, with the excretion rate influenced by diet composition rather than the presence of other metal ions.

Deficiency Diseases:

• Deficiency diseases observed in animals due to manganese deficiency.

Toxicity of Manganese:

• Excess manganese above certain levels can lead to toxicity, characterized by dental issues, reduced appetite, disturbed osseous metabolism, and inhibition of enzymatic actions related to carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
• Mineral mixtures containing fluorine should be carefully monitored to prevent fluorine toxicity in animals.

Overview of Selenium Functions and Absorption

• Essential Trace Element: Selenium, in small amounts (0.05 to 0.2 ppm), is crucial for normal growth, reproduction, and preventing liver necrosis in vitamin E-deficient rats.
• Distribution in the Body: It is widely distributed in the animal body, with higher concentrations in the kidney cortex, pancreas, pituitary, and liver.
• Absorption Mechanisms: Inorganic selenite and selenocystine are absorbed passively by the intestine, while selenomethionine is absorbed through an active transport mechanism.
• Transport and Functions: Selenium binds with plasma protein fractions, then transfers to erythrocytes (RBCs). It acts as a non-specific antioxidant, protects against tissue peroxidation, and participates in various biochemical processes.

Key Functions of Selenium

• Antioxidant Properties: Selenium acts as a non-specific antioxidant, protecting tissues and membranes against peroxidation.
• Biosynthesis Roles: It participates in the biosynthesis of ubiquinone and in hydrogen transport along the respiratory chain.
• Pancreatic Health: Selenium prevents degeneration and fibrosis of the pancreas in chicks.
• Influence on Vitamin Absorption: Selenium influences the absorption and retention of vitamin E and triglycerides through various mechanisms.

Interplay with Vitamin E

• Synergistic Relationship: Selenium and vitamin E interact closely in physiological processes, influencing each other's functions.
• Role in Reducing Selenium Requirement: Vitamin E helps maintain active selenium levels in the body and inhibits lipid peroxide formation, reducing the need for selenium-containing enzymes like glutathione peroxidase.
• Prevention of Toxicity: Selenium toxicity is more common than deficiency, often due to excessive intake leading to harmful effects in animals.

Toxicity and Effects

• Selenium Toxicity: Excessive selenium intake, usually from forage or soil, can lead to toxicity in animals.
• Symptoms: Selenium poisoning can cause alkali disease (blind staggers) in horses, cattle, and sheep, characterized by various physical and neurological symptoms.
• Sources: Fish-meal is a significant source of selenium, with variations in selenium content in feedstuffs based on soil selenium levels.

Relationship with Vitamin E

• Nutritional Interactions: Selenium and vitamin E play vital roles in preventing oxidative damage and maintaining cellular health.
• Complementary Functions: Selenium aids in peroxide breakdown, while vitamin E prevents peroxide formation, showcasing their interdependency in physiological processes.

Tin, Nickel, Chromium, Vanadium And Silicon in Trace Elements Study

• Historical Reports:
• In the past, various studies have demonstrated growth responses to several trace elements.
• Example: In 1958, a study found that six elements aluminum, bromine, boron, chromium, tin, and strontium led to significant growth improvements in chickens when added to their diets.

• Essentiality of Tin, Nickel, Vanadium, and Silicon:
  • Potential Essential Elements:
  • There is a suggestion that tin, nickel, vanadium, and silicon may be essential for animals, although definitive data confirming their essentiality are currently lacking.
  • Example: While there is no conclusive evidence yet, ongoing research indicates that these elements might play crucial roles in animal nutrition and health.

Metabolic Role of Trace Elements

Nickel's Influence:

• Nickel stimulates chicken growth in controlled environments.
• It activates various enzyme systems in organisms.
• Found in high concentrations in ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Plays a role in pigmentation in birds, fishes, and insects.

Vanadium's Importance:

• Essential for the growth of certain algae, rats, and chickens.
• Present in human enamel and dentin, potentially aiding in teeth and bone mineralization.
• High levels of vanadium (25 to 30 ppm) can be toxic.

Tin's Role:

• Essential for normal growth in rats.
• A reduction in tin levels leads to slower growth rates.

Chromium Deficiency:

• Leads to impaired growth, reduced lifespan, heart issues, and sugar metabolism defects.

Silicon's Significance:

• Abundant element crucial for skeletal structure in organisms like diatoms.
• Widely distributed in tissues of higher animals.
• Possibly associated with calcium during early calcification stages.