Environment and Ecology: March 2024 UPSC Current Affairs | Environment for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Tiger Safari in Tiger Reserve

Context

The Supreme Court is leaning towards approving the establishment of a Tiger Safari at Pakhrau, Uttarakhand, situated in the buffer area of Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR).

• The court stressed that safari parks should exclusively cater to local tigers that are injured, involved in conflicts, or orphaned, rather than those obtained from zoos.
• The Supreme Court has set a three-month deadline for the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to wrap up its inquiry into alleged irregularities within CTR.

What Does a Tiger Safari Really Mean?

A tiger safari involves observing tigers in their natural habitat, commonly conducted in protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, especially in India, which hosts a significant portion of the world's wild tiger population.

Definition and Legal Framework:

• The term "tiger safari" is not explicitly defined in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• The Act prohibits the construction of commercial tourist accommodations like lodges, hotels, zoos, and safari parks within sanctuaries without prior approval from the National Board for Wild Life.

Establishment Guidelines:

• The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) introduced the concept of tiger safaris in their 2012 Tourism Guidelines, allowing their establishment in buffer areas of tiger reserves.
• In 2016, NTCA guidelines specified that these safaris could only host injured, conflicted, or orphaned tigers and prohibited sourcing tigers from zoos.
• However, in 2019, NTCA revised the guidelines, permitting zoos to provide animals for tiger safaris. The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) gained authority to select these animals.

What are the Needs and Concerns Related to Building a Tiger Safari in the Forest?

Need for Safari Parks:

• The 2012 NTCA guidelines advocated for safari parks to alleviate tourism pressure within tiger reserves, aiming to reduce stress on wildlife.
• There's opposition to relocating unsuitable animals, such as those injured, orphaned, or involved in conflicts, to distant zoos. Safari parks offer a solution by keeping these animals captive within their natural surroundings.
• Buffer areas were designated to support activities benefiting local communities' livelihoods and development needs, with safari parks contributing to income generation and local support for tiger conservation.

Concerns:

• Housing zoo tigers or other captive animals within tiger habitats risks disease transmission to wild tigers and other wildlife.
• Establishing safari parks for "rescued" tigers may prioritize individual welfare over species conservation, potentially disturbing natural habitats.
• Displaying "rescued" tigers in safari parks differs from the usual practice of keeping distressed animals away from public view.
• The 2016 guidelines, cautious about this policy shift, required NTCA assessment for every "recovered/treated animal" before placement in safari parks.
• The Supreme Court criticized the NTCA's interpretation of safari parks as akin to zoos within tiger reserves, conflicting with tiger conservation objectives.
• Efforts to reduce tourist congestion around tigers in reserves have often backfired, with new safari routes attracting more visitors.

Way Forward

• Addressing Disease Transmission Risks: Implement stringent health screening and quarantine protocols for captive animals before introducing them into tiger habitats.
• Balancing Welfare and Conservation: Develop guidelines and management plans that prioritise species conservation and minimise disruptions to natural habitats while also considering the welfare of individual animals.
• Enhancing Oversight and Evaluation: Strengthen monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, building on the cautious approach outlined in the 2016 guidelines. Ensure that the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts thorough assessments of every "recovered/treated animal" before approving their placement in safari parks.
• Aligning with Conservation Goals: Foster dialogue between conservation organisations, government agencies, and legal authorities to ensure that policies and practices support long-term conservation efforts while upholding ethical standards.
• Sustainable Tourism Management: Implement sustainable tourism practices to reduce the impact of tourist crowds on tiger reserves. Explore options such as visitor quotas, diversified tourist activities, and improved infrastructure to manage visitor traffic more effectively.

Human-Animal Conflict

Context

Amidst a surge in fatalities resulting from animal attacks and escalating public outcry, Kerala has designated Human-Animal Conflict as a state-specific disaster.

• This proclamation represents a substantial shift in the governmental approach to addressing this urgent issue, modifying the roles and authorities involved.

How the State Manages Human-Animal Conflict as a State-Specific Disaster

• Responsibility: Previously under the jurisdiction of the Forest department as per the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, now falls under the purview of the state disaster management authority as per the Disaster Management Act.
• Decision Making Authority: Previously vested in the Chief Wildlife Warden, now rests with the State Disaster Management Authority, headed by the Chief Minister.
• District Level Authority: Previously held by the District Collector as the executive magistrate, now chaired by the District Collector as the Chairperson of the District Disaster Management Authority.
• Intervention Capability: Previously constrained by the Wildlife Protection Act, now empowered to take decisive actions under the Disaster Management Act.
• Judicial Oversight: Previously subject to judicial review under wildlife laws, now limited judicial interference due to provisions in the Disaster Management Act.
• Jurisdiction of Courts: Previously entertain suits under relevant wildlife laws, now only the Supreme Court or High Court can entertain suits related to actions under the Disaster Management Act, 2025 (Section 71).
• Norms Override Capability: Previously limited under wildlife laws, now has the authority to override other norms, including wildlife laws, during the declared disaster period (Under Section 72).

Other State-Specific Disasters

• In 2015, Odisha declared snakebite a state-specific disaster.
• In 2020, Kerala declared Covid-19 as a state-specific disaster.
• In addition, heat waves, sunburn, and sunstroke were declared so in 2019, the phenomenon of soil piping in 2017, and lightning and coastal erosion in 2015.

What is Human-Animal Conflict?

About: 

• Human-animal conflict occurs when human activities clash with wild animals, leading to adverse outcomes for both parties.

Implications: 

• Economic losses, threats to human safety, ecological damage, conservation challenges, and psychological impacts are all potential consequences.
  

Strategies to Mitigate Human-Animal Conflict:

• Habitat Management
• Crop Protection Measures
• Early Warning Systems
• Community Engagement and Education
• Conflict Resolution Mechanisms

Government Measures to Tackle Human-Animal Conflict:

• The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
• The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
• National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016)
• Project Tiger
• Project Elephant
• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Coral Bleaching in Great Barrier Reef

Context

Recent aerial surveys conducted by Australian authorities confirm extensive coral bleaching across approximately two-thirds of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), indicating a severe threat exacerbated by climate change. Urgent measures are required to alleviate the impacts and safeguard this crucial marine ecosystem.

Great Barrier Reef (GBR)

• The GBR stands as the world's largest coral reef system, situated in the Coral Sea off Queensland's coast, Australia.
• Spanning 2,300 km, it comprises about 3,000 individual reefs and 900 islands.
• Hosting 400 coral varieties and 1,500 fish species, it's also habitat to endangered species like the dugong and large green turtle. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1981.
• In 2023, while refraining from listing Australia’s Great Barrier Reef as a site "in danger," the UNESCO Heritage Committee cautioned about its continued vulnerability to pollution and ocean warming.

Factors Contributing to Coral Bleaching in GBR

• Temperature Stress: Elevated water temperatures can induce coral bleaching, expelling the algae (zooxanthellae) from coral tissues, turning them white. Prolonged heat stress from above-average sea surface temperatures intensifies bleaching.
• Climate Change Impact: Rising ocean temperatures, driven by climate change, heighten coral vulnerability to stress and mortality, resulting in widespread bleaching events globally, often exacerbated by El Niño conditions.
• Other Environmental Stressors: Cold water temperatures, pollution, runoff, and extreme low tides can also trigger coral bleaching, indicating the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon.
• Algae Relationship: Coral bleaching disrupts the symbiotic relationship between corals and algae, affecting coral nutrition and rendering them susceptible to disease.

Implications of Coral Bleaching

• Ecological Impact: Coral reefs, vital ecosystems supporting diverse marine life, face habitat and biodiversity loss due to bleaching, impacting fish populations, marine flora, and other organisms dependent on reefs.
• Economic Consequences: Crucial for coastal protection, tourism, and fisheries, coral reefs provide significant societal benefits worth USD 375 billion yearly. Bleaching-induced degradation threatens industries reliant on healthy reef ecosystems, like tourism and fishing.
• Food Security: Millions depend on coral reefs for food and livelihoods; bleaching jeopardizes seafood availability and disrupts fishing and reef-related tourism.
• Climate Change Indicator: Coral bleaching serves as a tangible indicator of climate change's marine ecosystem impacts.
• Loss of Ecosystem Services: Coral reefs provide essential services such as shoreline protection, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration. Bleaching compromises these services, impacting marine ecosystem health and coastal communities.

The Unjust Climate: FAO

Context

Recently, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) released a report titled "The Unjust Climate," revealing how the impacts of climate change on income and adaptation in rural areas are influenced by factors such as gender, wealth, and age.

Key Findings of the Report

Impact of Extreme Weather on Poor Rural Households:

• Extreme heat results in daily income losses of 2.4% for poor rural households, along with 1.1% loss in crop value and 1.5% loss in off-farm income compared to non-poor households across India and 23 other Lower Middle Income Countries (LMICs).
• A 1°C temperature increase would lead to a 33% decrease in off-farm incomes for rural poor households, forcing them to rely more on climate-dependent agriculture.
• Extreme precipitation causes daily income losses of 0.8% for poor households relative to non-poor households, primarily impacting off-farm incomes.

Income Inequality Widening Due to Climate Stressors:

• Heat stress and floods widen the income gap between poor and non-poor rural households by approximately USD 21 billion and USD 20 billion per year, respectively.

Maladaptive Coping Strategies:

• Poor rural households resort to maladaptive coping strategies such as distress sale of livestock and diverting expenditures away from their farms during extreme weather events, making them more vulnerable to future climate stressors.

Inadequate Inclusion in National Climate Policies:

• Rural people's climate vulnerabilities are largely overlooked in national climate policies, with less than 1% of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) and national adaptation plans (NAP) mentioning poor people, and only about 6% referring to farmers in rural communities.
• Climate finance allocation towards agriculture and forestry remains inadequate, with only 7.5% of tracked climate finance in 2017-18 allocated to adaptation, and less than 3% allocated to agriculture, forestry, and other land uses.
• Gender inequalities and women's empowerment are neglected in agricultural policies, with about 80% of policies from low- and middle-income countries failing to consider women and climate change.

Recommendations of the Report

• Targeted interventions are needed to empower various rural populations to engage in climate-adaptive measures.
• Investment in policies and programs addressing the multidimensional climate vulnerabilities of rural people and their constraints, including limited access to productive resources.
• Linking social protection programs to advisory services to encourage adaptation and compensate farmers for losses, such as cash-based social assistance programs.
• Implementing gender-transformative methodologies to challenge discriminatory gender norms and promote inclusivity for women, youth, and Indigenous Peoples.

FAO’s Initiatives to Tackle the Impact of Climate Change

• FAO's Strategy and Action Plan on Climate Change and Strategic Framework 2022–2031 mainstream inclusive climate actions to achieve better production, nutrition, environment, and life for all.
• The Global Roadmap for Achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 without breaching the 1.5°C threshold integrates gender inequalities, climate actions, and nutrition considerations, promoting inclusivity for women, youth, and Indigenous Peoples.

Groundwater Contamination in India

Context

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has recently expressed dissatisfaction with the Central Groundwater Authority's (CGWA) response to the widespread issue of toxic arsenic and fluoride in groundwater across India.

Sources of Groundwater Contamination

• Naturally Occurring Contaminants: Geological formations naturally contain high levels of arsenic, fluoride, iron, and uranium, contaminating groundwater. West Bengal and Assam are particularly affected by arsenic and iron pollution, respectively.
• Agriculture: Overuse of fertilisers, pesticides, and herbicides leads to chemical leaching into groundwater.
• Industrial Waste: Untreated industrial effluents introduce heavy metals and toxins into groundwater.
• Urbanisation: Leaky sewage systems and improper waste disposal in urban areas contribute to groundwater pollution.
• Saltwater Intrusion: Over-pumping of groundwater in coastal areas allows saltwater from the ocean to infiltrate freshwater aquifers, rendering the water unsuitable for consumption or irrigation. Rajasthan faces significant salinity contamination in rural habitations.

Primary Agents Responsible for Groundwater Contamination

• Arsenic: Natural occurrence as well as human activities like agriculture, mining, and manufacturing contribute to arsenic contamination. Industrial and mining discharges, as well as fly ash ponds in thermal power plants, are sources of arsenic in groundwater.
• Fluoride: High fluoride content in water causes fluorosis, leading to various health issues including neuromuscular disorders and dental deformities.
• Nitrates: Excessive nitrate levels in water can result in methemoglobinemia and blue baby syndrome, with potential carcinogenic effects and eutrophication.
• Uranium: Elevated uranium levels, primarily found in alluvial aquifers in regions like Rajasthan and crystalline rocks in states like Telangana, can lead to kidney toxicity.
• Radon: Groundwater in some areas, such as Bengaluru, contains high levels of radioactive radon, which poses a risk of lung cancer.
• Other Trace Metals: Lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium, and nickel, found in water, have carcinogenic properties and can cause various health issues such as Itai Itai disease and Minamata syndrome.

Way Forward 

• Strengthening Groundwater Regulation: Enforce stricter regulations on waste disposal and agricultural practices, and implement a permit system for groundwater extraction.
• Promoting Sustainable Agriculture: Provide subsidies and training for adopting precision agriculture techniques and efficient irrigation practices.
• Investing in Infrastructure: Increase investment in wastewater treatment plants to prevent untreated sewage from contaminating groundwater.
• Decentralised Management: Empower local communities through participatory water management models like Water User Associations.
• Blue Credit: Offer financial incentives for rainwater harvesting and water-saving technologies.
• Utilising Artificial Intelligence (AI): Leverage AI to analyse water quality data and predict contamination risks for targeted interventions.

India’s Battle Against Single Use Plastics

Context

India had committed to phase out Single-Use Plastics (SUP) by 2022, three years later, while some progress has been made with the ban on selected SUP items, challenges persist. According to a report launched during the 6th United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA-6), the thriving street food sector across India depends heavily on single-use plastics.

What are the Key Highlights of the Report Released at UNEA-6 Regarding SUP?

The Street Food Sector's Dependence on Single-Use Plastics:

Disposable items such as plates, bowls, cups, and containers are widely utilized in India's street food industry. Despite their low cost, these products pose a significant challenge to the country's waste management efforts.

Advantages of Implementing a Reusable System:

The research indicates that transitioning to a reusable system offers compelling advantages:

• Cost Reduction: Both vendors and customers can save money.
• Waste Reduction: The system significantly diminishes the need for packaging materials.
• Financial Feasibility: The study suggests a potential 21% return on investment within 2-3 years.
• Additional Considerations: Material selection, duration of use, return rates, deposit amounts, and governmental incentives are crucial factors for maximizing the effectiveness of the system.

Recommendation:

• Embracing a reusable packaging approach within India's street food sector presents a mutually beneficial solution. It is economically feasible and environmentally sound, benefiting all stakeholders and fostering a more resilient and sustainable future for Indian urban areas.

What is Single-Use plastic?

• It refers to a “plastic item intended to be used once for the same purpose before being disposed of or recycled.”
• Single-use plastic has among the highest shares of plastic manufactured and used — from packaging of items to bottles (shampoo, detergents, cosmetics), polythene bags, face masks, coffee cups, cling film, trash bags, food packaging etc.
• On the current trajectory of production, it has been projected that single-use plastic could account for 5-10% of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

What is the Current Landscape of Single-Use Plastics?

Share of Banned Single-Use Plastic Items:

• India banned 19 identified single-use plastic items in 2021, but it fell short of addressing the broader spectrum of single-use plastics still in circulation.
• The annual share of banned single-use plastic items is roughly 0.6 million tonnes per year.
• The remaining single-use plastic items, comprising mostly packaging products, are covered under the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policy introduced by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC) in 2022.
• The EPR policy specifies target collection and recycling, ignoring the fact that some single-use plastics that are not banned (such as multilayered packaging) are non-recyclable.

India’s share in Plastic Production:

• According to the report Plastic Waste Makers Index 2019, India was the 13th largest investor in single-use plastic polymer production globally.
• India ranked 3rd globally, contributing 5.5 million tonnes of single-use plastic (SUP) waste, and ranked 94th with per capita single-use plastic waste of 4 kg per year, indicating that the SUP ban in India addresses roughly 11% of the entire gamut of single-use plastic waste.

India’s Mismanagement in Plastic Waste:

• The UNEP’s country-wise plastic data revealed that India mismanages 85% of its plastic waste.
• This waste, predominantly single-use in nature, is dumped or even burnt at roadsides, choking drains and flowing into the rivers from where it disperses into the ocean, harming marine life directly or indirectly as it degrades into micro- and nano-sized particles over months, years and decades.

What are the Challenges in Tackling Single-Use Plastic?

• Limited Availability of Alternatives:
  • The scarcity of viable alternatives poses a significant obstacle to eliminating single-use plastics.
  • While alternatives exist, they may not be cost-efficient, convenient, or widely accessible, hindering both consumers and businesses from transitioning away from single-use plastics.
• Economic Factors:
  • Single-use plastics are favored for their affordability and convenience, making the switch to alternatives financially demanding.
  • Investments in research, development, and infrastructure are necessary but costly for businesses and governments.
  • Consumer reluctance to pay higher prices for alternative products further complicates the transition.
• Infrastructure Challenges:
  • Effective waste management infrastructure is vital for handling plastic disposal and recycling.
  • Many regions, particularly in developing countries, lack adequate infrastructure, leading to plastic pollution and environmental harm.
• Policy and Regulation:
  • While some governments have imposed restrictions on single-use plastics, enforcement and compliance pose significant challenges.
  • Resistance from industries and consumers accustomed to the convenience of single-use plastics may impede regulatory efforts.
• Consumer Behavior:
  • Changing consumer habits and perceptions regarding single-use plastics is essential for reducing their usage.
  • However, altering ingrained habits and raising awareness about the environmental impact can be challenging.
• Impact on Livelihoods:
  • Bans or restrictions on single-use plastics may inadvertently affect livelihoods, especially in industries reliant on their production or sale.
  • Phasing out single-use plastics must consider socio-economic implications and provide support to affected individuals and communities.

What Measure can be Taken to Deal With the Issue of Single-Use Plastic?

• Enforce Laws:
  • Upgrade the capacity of officials, especially those issuing challans, on what to look for during inspections. Equip inspection teams with instruments like gauge meters. Ensure reporting on inspection scale in various facilities.
• Mandate Public Disclosure of Environmental Compliance:
  • The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) and MOEFCC should mandate local governments and states to provide quarterly updates on their websites, including information on environmental compensation, units shut, and fines imposed.
  • States should also submit enforcement reports to the CPCB fortnightly. The CPCB should ensure this information is included in its Annual Report as per the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, and share data collected from private players and state authorities.
• Stop the Micron Business:
  • Carry bags irrespective of thickness should be banned. This has been done successfully in countries that are weaker economies than India such as various East African countries, for example, Tanzania and Rwanda.
  • The Indian state of Himachal Pradesh through its Non-biodegradable Garbage Control Act of 1998 has completely banned the production, distribution, storage and use of carry bags.
  • This is not just a policy on paper but has been implemented at scale in the entire state of Himachal Pradesh.
• Invest in the SUP Alternative Market:
  • The scarcity of alternatives is a major obstacle to moving away from SUP. The market will transition when cost-effective and convenient options become widely available.
  • However, substitutes are currently not abundant. This scarcity is largely due to the government's past neglect in promoting the alternative industry, while also attempting bans at the national and state levels.

Status of Leopards in India 2022

Context

Recently, the Environment Ministry, in collaboration with the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), unveiled the fifth cycle of leopard population estimation in India.

Key findings of the Fifth cycle of leopard population estimation in India

• Population Estimate:
• India’s leopard population is estimated at 13,874, showing stability compared to the previous count. The numbers rose by 8% from 12,852 in 2018 to 13,874 in 2022.
• However, this only covers 70% of leopard habitat, with the Himalayas and semi-arid regions not included in the survey.
• Region-wise Trends– In Central India, the leopard population remains stable or shows slight growth, whereas in the Shivalik hills and Gangetic plains, there is a decline in population.
• State-wise distribution:
• The highest number of leopards were reported in Madhya Pradesh (3,907), followed by Maharashtra (1,985), Karnataka (1,879) and Tamil Nadu (1,070).
• The tiger reserves or locations with the highest leopard populations include Nagarajunasagar Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh, followed by Panna and Satpura in Madhya Pradesh.
• Survey Methodology– The study targeted forested habitats across 18 states with tiger populations, employing foot surveys and camera traps. It captured over 4,70,81,881 photographs, resulting in 85,488 images of leopards.

Himalayas More Prone to Extreme Weather Events

Context

• The Himalayan Region, prone to cloudbursts and extreme weather events, is experiencing accelerated impacts of Global Warming.

How are the Shifts in Weather Patterns Increasing the Frequency of Extreme Events?

Shift in Monsoon Patterns:

• Southwest monsoon patterns show deviations, with more frequent occurrences in the Indo-Gangetic plain compared to the southern sub-continent.
• Reversal of historical precipitation patterns noted, with excessive rainfall in arid western India and deficient rainfall in the eastern half and coastal areas.

Temperature Rise in the Arabian Sea:

• Abnormal warming in the upper layer of the Arabian Sea leads to increased evaporation, potentially impacting southwest monsoon behavior.
• Increased cyclonic storms in the Arabian Sea, with a 50% rise between 2001 and 2019, half dissipating before landfall.

Extreme Rainfall and Cloudbursts:

• Intensification of thunderstorms, cloudbursts, and hailstorms observed, with a significant increase in frequency.
• Cloudbursts triggering landslides due to heavier raindrops, with instances rising from 2-4 per annum to 53 in Himachal Pradesh alone in 2023.

Glacial Melting and Glacier Lake Outbursts:

• Rapid glacial melting leads to the formation of glacial lakes, vulnerable to overflow or bursting banks during cloudbursts.
• Increase in the number of such lakes from 127 in 2005 to 365 in 2015, exacerbating floods and loss downstream.

Loss of Glacial Ice:

• More than 40% of Himalayan ice already lost, with projections indicating potential loss of up to 75% by the century's end.
• Impacting vegetation line, agriculture, and water resources in the region.

What can be the Adaptation Measures to Tackle the Impact of Climate Change?

• There is a growing need for improved monitoring of glaciers and glacial lakes, as well as better forecasting and early warning systems for landslides and glacial lake outbursts.
• However, these measures alone may not be sufficient to address the long-term impacts of climate change in the Himalayas.
• Reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and transitioning to renewable energy sources are seen as essential steps to mitigate the effects of global warming and safeguard the Himalayan region and its inhabitants.
• There should be Sustainable Construction Activities in the Himalayas region, which can withstand any calamitous event if it occurs. Some of the steps are-
• Understanding Terrain Characteristics: Recognising the impact of slope, drainage, and vegetation cover on the stress that an area can endure is fundamental. By delineating zones based on these factors, authorities can better manage construction activities and mitigate risks associated with unstable terrain.
• Assessing Climate Vulnerability: Given the increasing frequency of extreme weather events like floods and landslides, it's essential to project future climate scenarios and identify vulnerable areas. Projections and simulations can help in devising strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
• Managing Development Impacts: Development projects, particularly hydropower ventures, often have significant ecological consequences in hilly regions. Regulations should incorporate risk assessments and consider cumulative impacts to safeguard against forest degradation, changes in river courses, and loss of biodiversity.
• Enhancing Adaptive Capacity: As hill town populations grow, their ability to cope with climate change diminishes due to various challenges such as water scarcity, inadequate infrastructure, and limited livelihood options.
• Improving adaptive capacity involves bolstering services and infrastructure while prioritising sustainable solutions with community involvement.

What are the Government Initiatives Related to the Himalaya?

• National Mission on Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (2010): Covers 11 states (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, all northeast states, and West Bengal) and 2 UTs (Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh). Part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), comprising eight missions.
• Indian Himalayas Climate Adaptation Programme (IHCAP): It aims to enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities in the Indian Himalayas by strengthening the capacities of Indian institutions in climate science, with a specific focus on glaciology and related areas
• SECURE Himalaya Project: Integral to the "Global Partnership on Wildlife Conservation and Crime Prevention for Sustainable Development" (Global Wildlife Program), funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Focuses on promoting sustainable management of alpine pastures and forests in the high-range Himalayan ecosystems.
• Mishra Committee Report 1976: Named after MC Mishra, the then Garhwal commissioner in erstwhile Uttar Pradesh. It provided findings on land subsidence in Joshimath. Recommendations included imposing restrictions on heavy construction work, blasting, excavation for road repairs and other construction activities, and tree felling in the region.

Nitrogen Pollution

Context

Nitrogen pollution, characterized by excessive nitrogen compounds in water bodies, poses a significant environmental threat.

• Recent projections suggest that by 2050, a third of global river sub-basins may confront severe clean water scarcity due to nitrogen pollution.

Causes of Nitrogen Pollution

• Agricultural Activities: Increased use of nitrogen-based fertilizers contributes significantly to nitrogen pollution.
• Industrial Processes: Manufacturing activities release nitrogen compounds into the environment.
• Livestock Farming: Livestock waste, containing nitrogen compounds like ammonia, adds to the pollution load.
• Biomass Burning: Wildfires and burning of biomass emit nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, exacerbating pollution.

Impact of Nitrogen Pollution

• Eutrophication: Excessive nitrogen fosters algal growth, leading to oxygen-depleted dead zones in water bodies.
• Human Health Impacts: Nitrogen pollution correlates with respiratory ailments and poses risks to drinking water safety.
• Ozone Depletion: Nitrous oxide emissions contribute to stratospheric ozone layer depletion, with adverse implications for health and ecosystems.

Government Initiatives Addressing Nitrogen Pollution

• Bharat Stage (BS VI) Emission Standards: Regulations targeting nitrogen oxide emissions from vehicles and industries.
• Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS): Policy promoting efficient fertilizer usage.
• Soil Health Cards: Providing farmers with tailored fertilizer recommendations.
• Nano Urea: Innovative fertilizer aimed at enhancing crop productivity while reducing environmental impact.

Key Concepts Related to Nitrogen

• Nitrogen Fixation: Various processes, including microbial activity and industrial methods, convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms.
• Major Nitrogen Compounds: Nitrous oxide, di-nitrogen, ammonia, and nitrate play crucial roles in ecosystems but can become pollutants under certain conditions.

Strategies for Mitigating Nitrogen Pollution

• Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Precision agriculture and cover cropping reduce fertilizer usage.
• Improved Wastewater Treatment: Upgrading infrastructure to prevent nitrogen-rich compounds from entering water bodies.
• Incentivizing Green Infrastructure: Promoting projects that mitigate nitrogen runoff.
• Enhancing Public Awareness: Educating stakeholders about responsible nitrogen management practices.

Article 371A and Its Impact on Coal Mining in Nagaland

Context

Article 371A of the Constitution of India has been the major hurdle in the Nagaland government’s efforts to regulate small-scale illegal coal mining activities in the State.

• Article 371A had impeded ensuring the scientific mining of coal across five districts in the State.

About Article 371A

• No Act of Parliament in respect of religious or social practices of the Nagas, Naga customary law and procedure, administration of civil and criminal justice involving decisions according to Naga customary law, and ownership and transfer of land and its resources, shall apply to Nagaland unless the state Assembly decides by a resolution to do so.

Main Provisions of Article 371A

• Role of Governor: The Governor shall have special responsibility concerning law and order in the state for as long as internal disturbances continue therein or in any part thereof, and he shall exercise his judgment in this matter after consulting the Council of Ministers.
• Regional Council: There shall be established a regional council for the Tuensang district, consisting of 35 members and the Governor shall make rules for its composition and functioning.
• Power of Regional Council: The regional council shall have powers concerning making laws on certain matters such as land, forests, fisheries, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs etc., within the Tuensang district.