Buddhism and Jainism

Table of Contents
1. Origin of Buddhism
2. Causes for the Origin of Buddhism
3. Life of Gautama Buddha and Evolution of Buddhism
4. Events Related to Buddha's Life
5. Doctrines of Buddhism
6. Major Buddhist Texts
7. Buddhist Councils
8. Different Sects of Buddhism
9. Spread of Buddhism
10. Reasons for the Decline of Buddhism in India
11. Impact of Buddhism on Indian Culture
12. Buddhism as a Tool for Soft Diplomacy
13. Origin of Jainism
14. Founder of Jainism - Vardhamana Mahāvīra
15. Factors Contributing to the Rise of Jainism
16. Teachings of Jainism
17. Core Principles of Jainism
18. Split in Jainism
19. Jain Councils
20. Royal Patrons of Jainism
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Buddhism and Jainism are among India's most influential ancient traditions. Both emerged in the later Vedic period and shaped social, religious and intellectual life across South and East Asia. This chapter presents clear, syllabus-aligned summaries of their origin, key teachings, texts, institutional development, spread, decline and cultural impact. It retains important names, dates, places and book titles required for competitive examinations and for class-room learning.

Origin of Buddhism

• Buddhism began in northern India over 2,500 years ago as a reform movement based on the life and teaching of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha).
• Siddhartha Gautama was born c. 563 BCE into the Sakya royal family at Kapilvastu near Lumbini (close to the modern India-Nepal border).
• At about 29 years he renounced palace life (an event called Mahabhinishkramana) and pursued spiritual practice, first as an ascetic and later by following his own middle way.
• After prolonged practice and meditation he attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under the pipal/peepal tree at Bodh Gaya (Uruvella) and became the Buddha.
• He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (the Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana or "turning of the wheel of law"), which marks the public beginning of his teaching.
• Accounts vary, but the Buddha is traditionally believed to have died (entered Mahaparinirvana) at about the age of 80, commonly dated c. 483 BCE; some sources give alternative dates (e.g., 486-480 BCE).

Causes for the Origin of Buddhism

• Historical context: The 6th-5th centuries BCE were a time of social and intellectual ferment; many sought alternatives to elaborate Vedic rituals and priestly dominance.
• Simplicity and accessibility: Buddha taught in Prakrit (vernacular speech) rather than in elite Sanskrit, so his message reached a broader public.
• Simplicity of doctrine: Core Buddhist doctrines (the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and ethical precepts) provided clear moral and practical guidance without costly rituals.
• Anti-caste appeal: Buddhism rejected caste exclusivity and opened religious life to all social groups, attracting many who were dissatisfied with Brahmanical hierarchies.
• Personal charisma: The Buddha's reputation for compassion and moral integrity helped assemble a large and committed following.
• Royal and elite patronage: Support from kings and elites (e.g., Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, later Ashoka, Kanishka and patrons in Harsha's time) aided institutional growth.
• Monastic organisation and universities: The Sangha (monastic community) and centres of learning (Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramashila, Puspagiri) promoted study, training and transmission, attracting students from India and abroad.
• Councils and text-formation: Early Buddhist councils helped preserve and systematise doctrine and discipline, facilitating the religion's continuity and spread.

Life of Gautama Buddha and Evolution of Buddhism

Key biographical and institutional developments of the Buddha and early Buddhism.

Family and Background

• Father: Suddhodana, a chief of Kapilvastu.
• Mother: Mahamaya (Maya); his foster-mother/step-mother: Mahaprajapati Gautami.
• Wife: Yasodhara; son: Rahula.

Renunciation and Spiritual Training

• At about 29 years he left home and pursued austere practices as an ascetic before adopting the Middle Way.
• He studied briefly with teachers like Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta (alternatively spelled Udraka), but eventually pursued independent meditation.

Enlightenment and Teaching

• At about 35 he attained Nirvana/Nibbana after meditating under the Bodhi tree for a prolonged period (traditional account: 49 days).
• First sermon at Sarnath (Dharmachakra-pravartana); important disciples included Ananda, Upali, Sariputta and Mogallana.
• Key associated events include Sujata's offering of rice-milk at Bodh Gaya and the formation of the Sangha (monastic order of bhikshus and bhikshunis).

Eight Great Places Associated with the Buddha

• Lumbini, Sarnath, Sravasti, Rajagriha, Bodh Gaya, Kushinagar, Sankisa, Vaishali (note: Patliputra is not normally counted among these eight).

Ashoka and Later Patronage

• Ashoka: The Mauryan emperor who adopted and promoted Buddhism after the Kalinga war; he convened/ patronised the Third Buddhist Council, erected rock-edicts and sent missionaries (notably Mahinda and Sanghamitra) to Sri Lanka and other regions.
• Later royal patrons included the Palas of Bengal and Bihar, and rulers like Kanishka and Harshavardhana contributed to Buddhist institutional life.

Events Related to Buddha's Life

• Mahabhinishkramana (renunciation), enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, first sermon at Sarnath, establishment of the Sangha, and Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar are core milestones.

Doctrines of Buddhism

The fundamental doctrinal framework of Buddhism centres on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

Four Noble Truths

• Dukkha (Suffering): Life involves suffering, dissatisfaction and stress - physical pain, ageing, death and the unsatisfactory nature of conditioned existence.
• Samudaya (Cause of Suffering): Suffering arises from tanha/trishna (craving, attachment and desire) together with ignorance.
• Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): There is a cessation of suffering - Nirvana/Nibbana - attainable by uprooting craving.
• Magga (Path to the Cessation): The path leading to the end of suffering is the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika-Marga).

Eightfold Path

• Right View (Samma-Ditthi) - correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths.
• Right Intention/Thought (Samma-Sankappa) - renunciation, goodwill and harmlessness.
• Right Speech (Samma-Vaca) - truthful, kind, useful speech.
• Right Action (Samma-Kammanta) - ethical conduct; basic precepts for lay followers commonly stated as: do not kill (ahimsa), do not steal, do not engage in sexual misconduct, do not lie, do not take intoxicants.
• Right Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva) - earning a living without harming others (avoidance of trades that exploit or harm).
• Right Effort (Samma-Vayama) - persistent effort to remove unwholesome states and cultivate wholesome ones.
• Right Mindfulness (Samma-Sati) - clear awareness of body, feelings, mind and phenomena.
• Right Concentration (Samma-Samadhi) - development of deep meditative absorption leading to insight.
• Monastic precepts (examples): In addition to the five lay precepts above, monks and nuns observe further training rules such as avoiding eating after midday, refraining from entertainment and ornamentation, reducing attachment to luxury, and strict rules governing handling of money and possessions.

Major Buddhist Texts

Early Buddhist literature is divided into canonical (scriptural) and non-canonical (commentarial and historical) works.

Canonical texts - the Tripiṭaka / Tipiṭaka

The three "baskets" (Tripiṭaka in Sanskrit / Tipiṭaka in Pali) form the earliest comprehensive collections of Buddhaghosa's tradition and related schools:

1. Sutta (Sutra) Piṭaka - the discourses of the Buddha (Dhamma). The Pali Sutta Piṭaka is divided into five collections (nikāyas): Dīgha (long discourses), Majjhima (middle length), Saṃyutta (connected), Anguttara (numerical), and Khuddaka (minor collection).
2. Vinaya Piṭaka - monastic discipline governing the Sangha; includes the Patimokkha lists of offences and atonements, rules, biographical material and ritual texts.
3. Abhidhamma / Abhidharma Piṭaka - scholastic and philosophical analysis of doctrine; systematic treatment of mental and physical phenomena and ethical psychology.

Non-canonical and commentarial texts

• Mahāvastu - a Sanskrit-Prakrit hagiography narrating the Buddha's life (largely associated with early Mahāyāna traditions).
• Nidānakathā - connected life story of the Buddha (introductory section to the Jātaka collection in some traditions).
• Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Pali chronicles) - history and legend of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Asoka's missions and early councils.
• Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification by Buddhaghosa) - a comprehensive Theravāda manual on meditation, ethics and doctrine.
• Milindapañha (Questions of Milinda) - a dialogue between Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda) and the monk Nāgasena on philosophical topics.
• Nettippakaraṇa - a guide to exposition and method for presenting the Dhamma.

Buddhist Councils

• First Council - traditionally held at Rājagṛha shortly after the Buddha's death (c. 483 BCE) under King Ajātasatru. The oral compilation of the Sutta and Vinaya materials is attributed to this council.
• Second Council - held at Vaiśālī (c. 383 BCE, ~100 years after the Buddha) under King Kalāśoka, presided by Śaṭakāmí (Sabakami). Disputes over monastic discipline led to the emergence of groups such as Mahāsanghika and Sthaviravāda (Theravāda).
• Third Council - convened at Pāṭaliputra under the patronage of Aśoka and presided by Moggaliputta-Tissa. It is associated with the recension of texts and missionary activity; additions to the Abhidhamma and disciplinary clarifications are credited to it.
• Fourth Council - different traditions place this council at different times/places: one important Fourth Council (Scholastic) associated with the Sthavira/Sarvāstivādin tradition was held at Kuṇḍalagrāma / Kashmir under presidents such as Vasumitra and vice-presidents like Aśvaghoṣa; the Mahāvibhāṣā (a major doctrinal work) was compiled in Sanskrit. The fourth council in other traditions (e.g., Theravāda tradition at Alu Vihāra / Ceylon) produced local recensions.
• Later councils and scholastic activities led to growing doctrinal diversity and the formal rise of broad schools.

Different Sects of Buddhism

Hinayana / Theravāda traditions

• Theravāda (often labelled in older literature as "Hinayana" - a term now considered pejorative) emphasises close adherence to the early texts, the ideal of the arhat and monastic discipline; its canonical language in many areas is Pali.
• Theravāda spread to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos) where it became the dominant school.

Mahayāna

• Mahayāna emphasises the ideal of the bodhisattva - beings who postpone final nirvana to help all beings attain liberation; it developed new sutras and philosophical schools and employed Sanskrit widely.
• Main Mahāyāna currents include Madhyamaka (Śūnyavāda) associated with Nāgārjuna and Yogācāra (Vijñānavāda) associated with Asaṅga and Vasubandhu.

Vajrayāna (Tantric) and related schools

• Vajrayāna (Tantric Buddhism) developed ritual and meditative techniques claiming rapid paths to awakening; it flourished in Eastern India and later in Tibet (Tibetan Buddhism) and parts of the Himalaya.
• Zen / Chan is a Mahāyāna school that emphasises meditation (dhyāna/zen); it arose in China (Chan) and later spread to Japan as Zen, with a strong practical emphasis on zazen (seated meditation).

Spread of Buddhism

• Sangha organisation: The Buddha's followers divided into monastic (bhikshus/bhikshunis) and lay communities (upāsakas/upāsikās); the Sangha's mobility helped diffusion.
• Missionary activity: Aśoka's missions (3rd century BCE) notably expanded Buddhism beyond India - missions to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and regions identified in traditional lists include Gandhāra, Kashmir, parts of West Asia and even contacts with Hellenistic realms are recorded in some sources.
• Universities and translation: Institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila trained scholars and translators who carried Buddhist thought into China, Tibet and Southeast Asia.
• Adaptation to local cultures: Buddhism's capacity to absorb local beliefs, languages and artistic forms aided acceptance in many regions.

Reasons for the Decline of Buddhism in India

• Institutional decline and corruption: Over time, some monasteries amassed wealth and became vulnerable to internal corruption and decline in discipline.
• Doctrinal fragmentation: The multiplication of schools (Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna, various sub-sects) led to complex theological developments that sometimes distanced lay supporters from original teachings.
• Language shifts: The rise of Sanskritic scholasticism in some Buddhist scholastic circles reduced the accessibility that early Pali/Prakrit texts had provided to ordinary people.
• Resurgent Brahmanical traditions: Renewed Brahmanical and Śaiva revivals and patronage reduced royal and elite support for Buddhism in some periods.
• Political and military upheavals: Invasions, regional warfare and the decline of major Buddhist patrons undermined monasteries and centres of learning.
• Muslim conquests: From the 11th-13th centuries CE, incursions and the political reorganisation of northern India contributed to the shrinking of many Buddhist institutions; Buddhist communities retreated to Nepal, Tibet and other regions.

Impact of Buddhism on Indian Culture

• Ahimsa: The strong emphasis on non-violence became a lasting ethical idea in Indian thought.
• Art and architecture: Buddhist stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut), rock-cut chaitya halls and monastic architecture influenced Indian artistic forms.
• Education: Residential universities and monastic schools (Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramashila) advanced learning across disciplines - religion, philosophy, grammar, medicine and logic.
• Language and literature: The spread of Pali, Prakrit and the use of local languages for religious teaching enriched linguistic development.
• Transnational cultural diffusion: Buddhism carried Indian philosophical and cultural values into Central, East and Southeast Asia.

Buddhism as a Tool for Soft Diplomacy

• Shared cultural ties: Buddhist heritage links India with many Asian countries, providing a basis for cultural diplomacy and people-to-people contacts.
• Values and international appeal: Teachings of peace, compassion and inclusiveness have global resonance and can enhance India's cultural outreach.
• Resources: Indian pilgrimage sites, revived institutions (Nalanda revival) and contemporary Buddhist leadership contribute to international goodwill.
• Policy application: Promoting Buddhist studies, pilgrimage tourism and academic exchanges are practical steps to strengthen cultural and diplomatic ties.

Origin of Jainism

• Jainism is an ancient Indian religious tradition with a long lineage of teachers called Tīrthaṅkaras.
• There are traditionally 24 Tīrthaṅkaras; the last (most recent historical) Tīrthaṅkara is Vardhamana Mahāvīra (c. 6th-5th century BCE).
• The first Tīrthaṅkara in the traditional list is Rishabhanatha (Rishabhadev), and the 23rd is often named Parśvanātha (Parshvanatha), dated to earlier centuries (traditions place him around 9th-7th centuries BCE in some accounts, often associated with Varanasi).
• Most Tīrthaṅkaras are described in tradition as born into Kshatriya families.

Founder of Jainism - Vardhamana Mahāvīra

• Mahāvīra is regarded as the 24th and last Tīrthaṅkara of the present time cycle.
• Born in Kundagraha / Kundagrama near Vaiśālī, his parents were of the Kshatriya clan: father Śuddhārtha / Siddhartha (or related name forms) and mother Triśalā (Trishala).
• He married Yasoda and had a daughter (Anojja / Priyadarśinā in some accounts) before renouncing worldly life.
• Mahāvīra practised severe asceticism; after about 12-13 years of austerities he attained Kevala Jñāna (omniscience) at around the age of 42 (event called Kaivalya).
• He taught the principles of non-violence, self-discipline, non-possessiveness and the doctrine of karma and transmigration for c. 30 years before attaining liberation at Pāvā (near Rājagṛha) around the age of about 72.

Factors Contributing to the Rise of Jainism

• Reaction to ritualism: Critique of Vedic ritualism and the priesthood made ascetic and ethical alternatives attractive.
• Language and accessibility: Use of Prakrit and other vernaculars made teachings accessible to common people.
• Inclusiveness: Openness to different castes and social backgrounds helped broaden appeal.
• Royal patronage and historical contingencies: During the Mauryan period and episodes of famine, notable figures like Chandragupta Maurya are traditionally linked with Jain communities; migrations (e.g., Bhadrabahu's southward movement) influenced the regional spread.
• Geographic spread: From north India Jain communities moved to southern and western regions, gaining support across dynasties and regions.

Teachings of Jainism

• Rejection of Vedic authority: Mahāvīra rejected the Vedic ritual orthodoxy and emphasised ethical conduct and self-effort.
• No creator God: Jain philosophy explains the world by natural laws (karma and cause-and-effect) rather than a creator deity.
• Karma and transmigration: Actions bind karma to the soul (jīva); moral conduct, austerity and knowledge free the soul from karmic bondage.
• Asceticism and non-violence: Extreme emphasis on ahimsa (non-killing), self-control and renunciation; Jain practice includes strict ethical restraints for monks and significant austerities.
• Ethical evaluation: Moral worth is judged by conduct rather than birth; however, Jainism historically did not adopt the same anti-varna stance as Buddhism in all respects (it emphasised ethical status over birth but continued many social distinctions in practice).

Core Principles of Jainism

Jain philosophy frames spiritual progress in three interconnected pillars (the Ratnatraya):

1. Right Faith (Samyak Darśana)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jñāna)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Cāritra)

Right Conduct is commonly expressed through five great vows for ascetics and five principal vows for lay followers:

1. Ahimsa - non-violence in thought, word and deed.
2. Satya - truthfulness.
3. Asteya - non-stealing.
4. Brahmacharya - chastity/continence (strict for ascetics; restrained for laity).
5. Aparigraha / Parigraha nirodha - non-possession / non-acquisitiveness (limiting attachments).

Split in Jainism

• After the migration of leaders such as Bhadrabahu to the south, differences in practice and interpretation emerged in northern communities under leaders like Sthulabhadra (Sthulabahu).
• One significant practical change was the wearing of white garments by monks in the north, whereas southern ascetics continued naked practice (sky-clad).
• These differences crystallised into two major sects: Śvetāmbara (white-clad) and Digambara (sky-clad). The sects differ over textual canons, monastic practices, and certain doctrinal points.

Jain Councils

• First Council: Tradition records a council at Pāṭaliputra (3rd century BCE) associated with leaders such as Sthulabha and others aiming to conserve teachings orally during times of crisis.
• Second Council: The council at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 CE under Devardhigani is historically important for compiling and fixing the Śvetāmbara canon (the Angas and other works).

Royal Patrons of Jainism

South India

• Patronage and royal support came from dynasties and rulers such as the Kadambas, the Western Gangas, Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta period and later patrons such as Kumarapala (Chaulukya/Chalukya circles) who supported Jain institutions.

North India

• Early patrons in the north included kings like Bimbisāra and Ajātasatru (traditional lists), and later figures such as Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusāra, Harṣa and regional kings like Kharavela who appear in epigraphic and traditional accounts as supporters of Jaina communities.

Both traditions left a rich corpus of texts, institutions and material culture (stupas, chaityas, monastic complexes) that are central to the study of ancient India. For exam preparation: focus on dates and places (Kapilvastu/Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar; important councils and patrons such as Aśoka and the Palas), doctrinal keywords (Dukkha, Tanha/Trishna, Nirvana, Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Tripiṭaka; and for Jainism Kevala Jñāna, Ahimsa, Ratnatraya, Śvetāmbara and Digambara). These names, terms and events are essential for syllabus-based revision and analytical answers.