Environment and Ecology - 3 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Challenges of Handling Nuclear Waste

Why in news?

Recently, India has progressed in its nuclear power initiatives by loading the core of its long-awaited prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR) vessel, moving it to stage II, which utilizes uranium and plutonium. As part of its three-stage nuclear program, India aims to harness its extensive thorium reserves for future energy production. The management of nuclear waste remains a critical challenge due to the extensive reliance on nuclear energy.

What is Nuclear Waste?

• Nuclear waste is the byproduct of nuclear reactions occurring in fission reactors, where neutrons collide with atomic nuclei.
• When an atomic nucleus absorbs a neutron, it can become unstable and split, releasing energy along with the creation of new atomic nuclei.
• For instance, when uranium-235 (U-235) absorbs a neutron, it can fission into byproducts like barium-144 and krypton-89, along with the release of additional neutrons.
• The resulting fragments that cannot undergo further fission become classified as nuclear waste.
• Once the fuel in a nuclear reactor becomes irradiated, it is termed spent fuel and must be carefully removed and stored due to its high radioactivity.
• Nuclear waste requires secure storage in specially designed facilities to prevent environmental contamination.

How can Nuclear Waste be Managed Safely and Effectively?

• The foremost challenge in nuclear waste management is dealing with the highly radioactive spent fuel, which must be submerged in water for several decades to cool before transitioning to dry cask storage for long-term containment.
• Countries with established nuclear energy programs have accumulated significant amounts of spent fuel: the US has approximately 69,682 tonnes, Canada holds 54,000 tonnes, and Russia has about 21,362 tonnes.
• The storage duration for radioactive waste can extend to thousands of years, necessitating isolation from human contact far beyond the existence of modern humans.
• Nuclear power facilities also manage liquid waste through treatment processes, as seen in Japan's ongoing discharge of treated water from the Fukushima plant into the Pacific Ocean.
• Some liquid waste can be evaporated or chemically precipitated, resulting in a manageable sludge that can be solidified or incinerated.
• High-level liquid waste is often vitrified, meaning it is transformed into a glass-like substance for stable storage.
• Experts advocate for geological disposal, where waste is encapsulated in secure containers and buried in stable geological formations like granite or clay.
• Spent fuel can also undergo reprocessing, a method that separates fissile materials from non-fissile ones through chemical treatment.
• While reprocessing enhances fuel efficiency, it requires specialized facilities that pose safety concerns and are costly to operate.
• This process can produce weapons-usable plutonium, which, while not weapons-grade, can still be utilized in nuclear weapons, raising additional security concerns.

What are the Challenges in Managing Nuclear Waste?

• Geological Disposal Leakage: The risk of leakage from geological disposal sites poses a danger of radioactive exposure to humans, particularly if containment structures are disturbed during nearby construction activities. An example includes the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in the US, where a 2014 incident released radioactive materials, highlighting maintenance failures.
• Exclusion of Private Sector: The absence of private sector involvement can stifle innovation in nuclear waste management. Competition and market incentives typically drive advancements in technology, which are crucial for developing efficient waste treatment methodologies.
• Unutilized Fund: The US Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 established a Nuclear Waste Fund financed by a portion of nuclear energy sales. However, despite accumulating around USD 40 billion by July 2018, this fund has been criticized for not being utilized for its intended purpose.
• Lack of International Cooperation: Effective nuclear waste management is hampered by insufficient cooperation among stakeholders. Given the global nature of nuclear waste management, international collaboration is vital for sharing knowledge and best practices.

Way Forward

• Enhancing reprocessing capabilities can allow for the recycling of valuable materials from spent nuclear fuel, thereby decreasing the volume of high-level waste needing long-term storage.
• Vitrification: This technique involves encasing radioactive waste in glass, ensuring that hazardous components are immobilized and preventing environmental leachate.
• Research and Development: Increased investment in R&D is necessary to explore alternative methods of disposal and develop innovative technologies for nuclear waste management, including advanced containment materials and geological disposal techniques.
• Regulatory Oversight: Robust regulatory frameworks are essential to ensure the safe handling, transportation, and storage of nuclear waste, with regulatory bodies monitoring compliance to minimize environmental and health risks.
• Nuclear waste management is a global concern, necessitating international collaboration for effective solutions.

Global E-waste Monitor 2024

Why in News?

Recently, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) has released the Global E-waste Monitor 2024 report, highlighting that the generation of electronic waste globally is increasing at a rate five times faster than the documented recycling of e-waste.

E-waste Generation Trends:

• The global e-waste generation has seen a substantial rise from 34 billion kg in 2010 to 62 billion kg in 2022.
• This upward trend is expected to continue, with projections estimating a rise to 82 billion kg by 2030.
• Out of the 62 billion kg generated, only 13.8 billion kg is formally collected and recycled in an environmentally responsible way.
• The composition of the 62 billion kg e-waste includes:
  (a) 31 billion kg of metals
  (b) 17 billion kg of plastics
  (c) 14 billion kg of other materials (minerals, glass, composite materials, etc.)

Drivers of E-waste Generation:

The increase in e-waste is driven by several factors, including:

• Technological advancements
• Higher consumption rates of electronic products
• Limited options for repairs
• Short product life spans
• Growing reliance on electronic devices
• Inadequate infrastructure for managing e-waste

Informal Recycling Sector:

• A large portion of e-waste is processed by the informal sector in both high- and upper-middle-income countries, as well as in low- and lower-middle-income nations.
• This is primarily due to the lack of adequate formal e-waste management systems.

Environmental and Health Impacts:

• Inadequate management of e-waste, particularly through informal recycling practices, results in the release of hazardous substances like mercury and brominated flame retardants into the environment.
• These substances pose significant risks to both environmental health and public safety.
• For instance, brominated flame retardants are chemicals added to materials to delay ignition and control the spread of fire. They work by disrupting combustion processes, thereby reducing flammability.
• Annually, approximately 58,000 kg of mercury and 45 million kg of plastics containing brominated flame retardants are released into the environment.

Regional Disparities:

• Europe leads in formal e-waste collection and recycling, achieving a rate of 42.8%.
• In contrast, Africa experiences very low recycling rates (below 1%) despite generating less e-waste overall.
• Asia, including India, produces a significant share of global e-waste but has made limited progress in e-waste management.
• Countries in Asia generate nearly half of the world's e-waste (30 billion kg), yet few have implemented legislation or set clear targets for e-waste collection.

Per Capita E-waste Generation and Recycling Rates

In 2022, the highest per capita e-waste generation was recorded in:

• Europe: 17.6 kg
• Oceania: 16.1 kg
• The Americas: 14.1 kg

These regions also reported the highest per capita collection and recycling rates:

• Europe: 7.53 kg
• Oceania: 6.66 kg
• The Americas: 4.2 kg
• Such high rates can be attributed to their advanced collection and recycling infrastructures.

Recycling Rates by Equipment Type:

• Collection and recycling rates are notably higher for larger and bulkier equipment, such as temperature exchange devices and screens/monitors.
• Conversely, items like toys, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, and e-cigarettes, which account for a third of global e-waste (20 billion kg), have very low recycling rates, estimated at only 12% globally.
• Small IT and telecommunications devices, such as laptops, mobile phones, GPS devices, and routers, make up 5 billion kg of e-waste, with only 22% being formally collected and recycled.

Policy Adoption:

• A total of 81 countries have enacted e-waste policies, legislation, or regulations.
• 67 countries have implemented legal provisions for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) concerning e-waste.
• 46 nations have established targets for e-waste collection rates, while 36 have set targets for recycling rates.

What is an e-Waste?

• Electronic waste (e-waste) refers to discarded electrical and electronic equipment that has reached its end-of-life, including household appliances and office information and communications technology.
• E-waste is known to contain a variety of toxic substances, including metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and nickel.
• India ranks third globally in e-waste generation, following China and the United States, with a significant increase to 1.6 million tonnes in 2021-22.
• More than 60% of India's e-waste comes from 65 cities, while 10 states contribute to 70% of the total e-waste generated.

The Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2024

Why in news?

The Environment Ministry has introduced the Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2024 to revise the existing Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016. These new rules aim to tighten regulations on disposable plastic products, specifically addressing the labeling of such items as 'biodegradable' and ensuring that manufacturers do not leave behind any microplastics.

What are Microplastics?

• Microplastics are defined as solid plastic particles that are insoluble in water, with sizes ranging from 1 µm to 1,000 µm (1 µm equals one-thousandth of a millimeter).
• These particles have recently emerged as a significant pollution source, particularly impacting rivers and oceans.

Objective of the Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016

• The original rules aimed to manage plastic waste effectively and outlined the responsibilities of producers in reducing plastic pollution.

Need to Amend the Plastic Waste Management Rules

• The need for amendments arose from the increasing plastic pollution and the ineffectiveness of the previous rules in addressing the challenges posed by disposable plastics and microplastics.

Highlights of the Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2024

• The amendments increase the minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50 microns and set the same thickness for plastic sheets to improve collection and recycling efforts.
• The scope of the rules has been expanded to include rural areas, recognizing that plastic waste is a growing issue even outside urban centers.
• The rules introduce extended producer responsibility, requiring producers to take back plastic waste.
• There is a push to utilize plastic waste in road construction and energy recovery processes, following guidelines from the Indian Road Congress.

• Biodegradable plastics and compostable plastics are two major technological solutions to the problem of plastic waste.
• Biodegradable plastics are designed to decompose naturally over time but have not been tested for complete degradation.
• Compostable plastics require specific industrial conditions to break down properly.

• The Union government banned single-use plastics in 2022 and has encouraged the use of biodegradable options.
• However, the definition of biodegradable plastics has been ambiguous, causing confusion among manufacturers seeking certification.
• The updated rules clarify that biodegradable plastics must decompose without leaving microplastics behind.

• Manufacturers of biodegradable and compostable plastics must obtain certification from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) prior to marketing their products.
• They are also required to manage pre-consumer plastic waste generated during manufacturing and report to the relevant pollution control authorities. 

Vultures at Risk in Protected Areas

Why in News?

Recent studies have revealed that vultures in protected areas are still at risk due to toxic substances like Diclofenac. Scientists examined the feeding habits of vultures in India by analyzing DNA from vulture feces collected from nests and roosts across six states between 2018 and 2022. Vultures are known for their extensive foraging ranges, which may expose them to Diclofenac from regions where it is still in use.

What are the Key Facts About the Vultures Species in India?

• Vultures are among the 22 species of large scavenger birds primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions.
• They play a crucial role in nature by acting as scavengers, helping to keep the environment clean by consuming waste.
• Vultures also help control wildlife diseases.
• India is home to nine vulture species, including the Oriental white-backed, Long-billed, Slender-billed, Himalayan, Red-headed, Egyptian, Bearded, Cinereous, and the Eurasian Griffon.
• There has been a significant decline in vulture populations across South Asia, especially in India, Pakistan, and Nepal, largely due to the veterinary drug Diclofenac used in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
• This led to a population decrease of over 97% in some areas, resulting in an ecological crisis.

• Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling: Vultures play a vital role by consuming carrion, preventing the accumulation of decaying bodies and returning nutrients to the soil, which promotes plant growth.
• Disease Prevention: Vultures possess highly acidic digestive systems that can neutralize bacteria and viruses responsible for diseases such as anthrax and rabies, acting as a barrier against pathogens.
• Indicator Species: Vultures are sensitive to environmental changes, and their population decline can signal broader ecological issues, such as pollution or food scarcity.

What are the Reasons Behind the Decline in Vulture Populations?

• Drug Poisoning: The use of veterinary drugs like Diclofenac, ketoprofen, and aceclofenac has had a catastrophic effect on vulture populations. These drugs, used for treating livestock, are toxic to vultures that consume the remnants of treated animals, leading to kidney failure.
• Secondary Poisoning: Vultures often ingest carcasses tainted with pesticides or other toxins, including lead from ammunition used in hunting, which can be fatal.
• Habitat Loss: Urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural expansion have resulted in significant habitat loss, eliminating vital nesting and roosting sites for vultures.
• Collisions with Infrastructure: Vultures are at risk of colliding with power lines and wind turbines, which can cause injuries or fatalities.
• Poaching and Hunting: In certain regions, vultures are hunted due to cultural beliefs or for the illegal wildlife trade, further threatening their survival.
• Disease Outbreaks: Infectious diseases such as avian pox and avian flu can adversely affect vulture populations, contributing to their decline.

What are the Vulture Conservation Efforts Taken by India?

• Addressing the Drug Threat: India banned Diclofenac for veterinary use in 2006, a crucial measure to protect vultures from kidney failure.
• The Ministry for Environment, Forests and Climate Change initiated the Vulture Action Plan 2020-25 to ensure minimal Diclofenac presence and prevent poisoning of vulture food sources.
• Expansion of the Ban: In August 2023, the use of ketoprofen and aceclofenac for veterinary purposes was also banned due to their potential harm to vultures.
• Captive Breeding and Reintroduction: A network of Vulture Conservation Breeding Centres (VCBCs) was established, starting with the first center in Pinjore, Haryana, in 2001, aimed at breeding endangered vulture species for eventual reintroduction into the wild.
• Vulture Restaurant: In Jharkhand, a 'Vulture Restaurant' was created in Koderma district to mitigate the negative effects of livestock drugs on vultures.
• Other Vulture Conservation Initiatives: Vultures are protected under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) and the 'Species Recovery Programme.' The Vulture Safe Zone program operates in eight locations with existing vulture populations.
• Legal Protection: Species such as Bearded, Long-billed, Slender-billed, and Oriental white-backed vultures are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, while others are included in Schedule IV.
• International Collaboration: The SAVE (Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction) initiative involves various organizations working together to coordinate conservation efforts and raise awareness about the plight of vultures in South Asia.

Way Forward

• There is an urgent need to regulate harmful veterinary drugs like Diclofenac and promote safer alternatives.
• Wider bans on similar drugs, such as nimesulide, are essential.
• Education on proper carcass disposal and the establishment of vulture feeding centers with safe food sources must be prioritized to enhance vulture protection.
• Identifying and protecting nesting and roosting sites is crucial, alongside creating corridors connecting feeding and nesting areas.
• Continuous monitoring is necessary to eliminate Diclofenac use in veterinary practices completely.
• The success of vulture conservation relies on a comprehensive approach, and India's ongoing efforts can serve as a model for other countries facing similar challenges.

NABARD's Climate Strategy 2030 Document

Why in news?

Recently, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) launched its Climate Strategy 2030 document on World Earth Day. This initiative is focused on policy, planning, and operations relevant to credit for agriculture and other economic activities in rural India. NABARD was established following the recommendations of the B. Sivaraman Committee and was formed to implement the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development Act of 1981. It took over the roles of the Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) and the Rural Planning and Credit Cell (RPCC) of the Reserve Bank of India, as well as the Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation (ARDC). NABARD collaborates with World Bank-affiliated organizations and global development agencies that focus on agriculture and rural development, and its headquarters is located in Mumbai.

The Climate Strategy 2030 document aims to address India's need for Green Finance and was introduced during the 78th Business Plan Meet (BPM) in Thiruvananthapuram. This strategy encompasses four main pillars:

• Accelerating Green Lending across various sectors
• Playing a broader Market-Making Role
• Internal Green Transformation of NABARD
• Strategic Resource Mobilization

The objective of this strategy is to reinforce NABARD's commitment to environmental stewardship and to play a crucial role in India's transition to a resilient and sustainable economy.

What is Green Finance?

According to the United Nations Environment Programme, Green Finance refers to the financial flows that support sustainable development priorities from various sectors including banking, micro-credit, insurance, and investment. Examples of Green Finance include:

• Purchasing eco-friendly goods and services
• Developing green infrastructure
• Issuing green bonds
• Providing green mortgages
• Establishing green funds
• Offering green loans
• Creating sustainable credit cards

Green Finance includes climate finance but also encompasses a broader range of environmental objectives, such as controlling industrial pollution, ensuring water sanitation, and protecting biodiversity.

• Improves management of environmental and social risks
• Encourages opportunities that yield both financial returns and environmental benefits
• Enhances accountability among businesses and investors

• Facilitating Eco-Friendly Technologies: Green finance helps in the extensive deployment of green infrastructure and other environmentally friendly initiatives.
• Competitive Edge: Investing in low-carbon technologies through green finance provides businesses with a competitive advantage.
• Enhanced Business Value: Green finance increases a company's portfolio value, attracting stakeholders, investors, and customers.
• Economic Boost: Encouraging green initiatives can enhance businesses' financial performance while promoting sustainability.
• Promotes the Importance of Sustainability: When one company adopts green finance, it can inspire others to do the same, positively influencing local markets and renewable energy development.

• Lack of Standardization: The absence of a universal standard for green finance makes it difficult for investors and consumers to distinguish genuinely committed companies from those engaging in greenwashing.
• Risk Assessment: The lack of standardization and available data complicates the pricing of green finance, making accurate risk assessment challenging.
• India’s Green Finance Gap: India requires approximately $170 billion annually to achieve a cumulative total of over $2.5 trillion by 2030, but received only about $49 billion in 2019-20, falling short of the needed funds.
• Data Availability: Reliable data on green finance is scarce, complicating the ability to assess which companies successfully implement green initiatives.
• Transition Risks: Transitioning to a low-carbon economy requires changes in business practices across industries, which may impact investor portfolios.
• Regulatory Concerns: Green finance is heavily influenced by government policies, leading to concerns about how future environmental regulations may affect investment profitability.
• Uncertain Financial Performance: Investor hesitance may arise due to uncertainties regarding short-term returns compared to proven long-term profitability of green finance.

• Implementing changes in countries’ regulatory frameworks
• Harmonizing public financial incentives to increase Green Finance from various sectors
• Aligning public sector financing decisions with the environmental aspects of Sustainable Development Goals
• Increasing investments in clean and green technologies
• Providing financing for sustainable natural resource-based green economies
• Encouraging climate-smart blue economy initiatives
• Utilizing green bonds, etc.

• DLF: By implementing practices such as a zero-discharge water system and sewage treatment plants, DLF recycles millions of liters of water daily, reducing pressure on local water sources. It is the only Indian real estate company listed in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index for three consecutive years, showcasing its commitment to environmental, social, and governance excellence. DLF also prioritizes the preservation of greenery by transplanting mature trees.
• Signature Global (India) Ltd.: Most of their projects are either EDGE certified or IGBC gold-rated, reflecting their commitment to environmental sustainability. They have reduced water usage by around 52% through various optimal practices.
• Remsons Industries Ltd.: The company has demonstrated exceptional performance in areas such as Environment, Labour and Human Rights, Ethics, and Sustainable Procurement. It received a Gold Medal in the Ecovadis Sustainability Assessment, recognizing it as one of the top 5% of evaluated companies globally, reaffirming its commitment to environmental, social, and governance (ESG) standards.

What is Global Forest Watch (GFW)?

Why in news?

According to recent data from the Global Forest Watch monitoring project, India has experienced a loss of 2.33 million hectares of tree cover since the year 2000.

• India's tree cover loss is documented by Global Forest Watch (GFW).
• GFW is an open-source web application designed to monitor global forests in near real-time.
• The application utilizes satellite data and various other sources for its analysis.
• It is managed by the World Resources Institute (WRI), a nonprofit research organization based in Washington.
• Data compilation is primarily the work of researchers from the University of Maryland.
• The platform is user-friendly, allowing anyone to create custom maps, analyze forest trends, subscribe to alerts, or download data for specific localities or globally.
• Tree cover serves as a practical metric for assessing changes in forest areas, as it can be easily measured using freely available medium-resolution satellite imagery.

• In the previous year, primary forest loss in the tropics—forests untouched by human activity—decreased by 9% compared to 2022.
• Globally, 37,000 square kilometers (14,000 square miles) of tropical primary forest were lost last year, an area comparable to Switzerland.
• Countries like Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Bolivia were the top contributors to primary forest loss.
• Global deforestation saw a rise of 3.2% in 2023.
• India lost 2.33 million hectares of tree cover since 2000, marking a 6% reduction during that time frame.
• From 2002 to 2023, the country lost 414,000 hectares of humid primary forest, which accounted for 4.1% of total forest loss.
• Between 2001 and 2022, forests in India emitted 51 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent annually while removing 141 million tons, resulting in a net carbon sink of 89.9 million tons per year.
• On average, 51 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent were released into the atmosphere due to tree cover loss in India.
• Data indicates that from 2013 to 2023, 95% of tree cover loss in India occurred within natural forests.
• Five states were responsible for 60% of all tree cover losses between 2001 and 2023.

• Assam experienced the largest loss, with 324,000 hectares, compared to an average of 66,600 hectares.
• Mizoram lost 312,000 hectares of tree cover.
• Arunachal Pradesh recorded a loss of 262,000 hectares.
• Nagaland and Manipur lost 259,000 hectares and 240,000 hectares, respectively.

What is the World Resources Institute (WRI)?

• The World Resources Institute (WRI) is a research institute founded in 1982.
• It aims to promote environmentally sustainable and socially equitable development.
• WRI is based in Washington, D.C. and organizes its efforts around seven global challenges: Food, Forests, Water, Energy, Climate, Oceans, and Cities.