India and Pakistan | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

India’s Policy Towards Pakistan

The relationship between India and Pakistan is complex and can be described in various ways:

• Some see it as a 'love-hate' relationship.
• Others view them as estranged brothers quarreling over family wealth.
• There are those who see it as a mortal battle, with India wanting to destroy Pakistan.
• And then there are those who believe Pakistan opposes everything India stands for, such as pluralism,secularism,democracy,development, and peace.

Despite these differences, there are also heartwarming stories of kindness between the two nations, like restaurant owners in Lahore refusing to charge Indian visitors and taxi drivers in Delhi waiving fares for Pakistani visitors.

One thing is clear: no single view can capture the complexity of India-Pakistan relations. The dynamics between India and Pakistan are unique and different from India's relationships with other neighbors. This rivalry is one of the most enduring since World War II.

Historical Background

The history of India-Pakistan relations is deeply rooted in the past. Before 1947, the political, business, civil services, and military elites of India and Pakistan worked together and had personal relationships, both friendly and competitive. However, the Partition of British India into India and Pakistan was a violent process, leading to the deaths and displacement of millions.

Formation of Pakistan

• On 14 August 1947, Pakistan was created, with the Muslim-dominated regions becoming West Pakistan and East Pakistan, separated by hundreds of kilometers of Indian territory.
• India gained independence a day later on 15 August 1947.

Post-Independence Relations

• India and Pakistan established diplomatic relations soon after their independence.
• However, the relationship was overshadowed by numerous territorial claims and disputes.
• Since their independence, the two countries have fought three major wars and one undeclared localized war.
• The 1972 war resulted in the birth of Bangladesh, which was formerly East Pakistan.

Ongoing Conflicts

• There have been numerous armed skirmishes and military standoffs between the two countries.
• Pakistani border forces periodically violate the ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir.
• The Kashmir dispute is a central point of conflict between India and Pakistan.
• Cross-border terrorism, used as a strategic tool by the Pakistani state, is another major point of contention.
• There have been many terrorist incidents over the last three decades, including the attack on the Indian Parliament, which were traced back to Pakistan-based terrorist organizations.

Historical Background: Roots of the Conflict

India and Pakistan share a complex and often hostile relationship, marked by historical, cultural, and political tensions. Despite these challenges, there are also strong emotional and cultural ties between the two nations, leading some to describe their relationship as a "love-hate" dynamic.

Historical Background

• Before 1947, there was significant acrimony and political rivalry between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
• The period leading up to independence was marked by communal tensions and violence.
• When India and Pakistan gained independence, the partition was not peaceful. It involved massive displacement and migration of populations along communal lines, resulting in widespread violence and loss of life.
• Approximately 12.5 million people were displaced during the partition.
• The death toll from the communal violence that followed is estimated to range from several hundred thousand to over a million, with some estimates going as high as 2 million.

Impact of Partition

• The partition severely damaged the centuries-old social cohesion and communal harmony in the region.
• India was left with a hostile neighbor in Pakistan, which was created as a homeland for Muslims.

Pakistan's Identity

• The Muslim League's vision for Pakistan was rooted in opposition to India, and the new nation was framed as being fundamentally different from its neighbor.
• Pakistani leadership emphasized this distinction, promoting a sense of "un-Indianness" in terms of history, culture, and society.
• Over the decades, Pakistan has positioned itself as a counter to India, with its national identity often defined in opposition to what India represents.

Divergent Concepts of Nationhood

1. India is a diverse country with many languages, castes, religions, and ethnic identities. The Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality for all citizens and enshrines secularism as a fundamental principle. The Indian state is expected to treat all religions equally, following the idea of sarva dharma sama bhav, meaning "all religions are the same."
2. India was formed as a secular nation with a Hindu majority and a large Muslim minority, along with various other religious minorities. Similarly, Pakistan was established as a secular nation with a Muslim majority and a significant Hindu minority, as well as a sizable Sikh community.
3. In Pakistan, the early years after independence were marked by the deaths of key leaders: founder Mohammed Ali Jinnah and first Governor-General Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah in September 1948, followed by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, who was assassinated in 1951. This created a political vacuum with no widely accepted national leader.
4. The power vacuum in Pakistan was filled by army officers and senior bureaucrats, who often resorted to martial law and governor's rule to address political issues. This led to a period of political chaos and economic decline that lasted for over two decades.
5. The Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan and the formation of Bangladesh, which significantly impacted Pakistan's demographic makeup and its Hindu minority population.
6. Despite these challenges, Pakistan managed to establish a constitution in 1956, which declared it an Islamic Republic while also guaranteeing freedom of religion for all faiths. However, the early years were marked by struggles to balance regional, linguistic, and religious demands, with the influential Ulemas calling for a constitution based on Islamic laws.

Princely States

Source of Conflict: Former Princely States

• When British colonial rulers left, they allowed the 680 princely states to choose which of the two new dominions, India or Pakistan, they wanted to join.
• Most Muslim-majority princely states joined Pakistan, while most Hindu-majority states acceded to India. However, there were exceptions due to different political ambitions or geographical reasons.

Junagadh

• Located in southwestern Gujarat, Junagadh was a princely state ruled by Nawab Mahabat Khan, a Muslim, despite having a Hindu majority population.
• On August 15, 1947, Mahabat Khan decided to join Pakistan, even though Junagadh had no contiguous borders with it.
• Junagadh would have been an enclave of Pakistan, surrounded by Indian territory on three sides, with only a coastal link to Pakistan.
• Pakistan accepted the accession on September 15, 1947, while India rejected it due to the lack of geographical contiguity and the Hindu majority.
• This led to a standoff, with the Nawab leaving for Pakistan and the Dewan of Junagadh requesting Indian intervention.
• Indian troops occupied Junagadh on November 9, 1947, and a plebiscite in February 1948 showed overwhelming support for accession to India.

Hyderabad

• Hyderabad was the richest princely state, ruled by Muslim Nizams over a largely Hindu population for over 200 years without major issues.
• When India gained independence, the Nizam of Hyderabad chose to remain independent rather than join India.
• On November 29, 1947, a standstill agreement was signed with India for one year.
• The Nizam wanted to maintain independence, while India insisted on Hyderabad joining the Indian Union.
• This disagreement led to police action, where Indian troops swiftly overcame the Nizam's resistance, and Hyderabad was integrated into India on September 13, 1948.

Accession of Jammu & Kashmir and the First India-Pakistan War of 1948

Background of Kashmir's Accession to India

• Kashmir was a princely state with a Muslim majority population, ruled by a Hindu king, Maharaja Hari Singh.
• The Maharaja wanted Kashmir to remain independent, neutral, and recognized by both India and Pakistan.

Pakistan's Invasion of Kashmir

• In October 1947, Pakistan invaded Kashmir with irregular forces and tribal fighters.
• The Maharaja's security forces were unable to stop the invasion.
• Prior to the invasion, there were incidents of communal violence in September 1947, leading to the killing of Muslims in Jammu.

Appeal for Help and Accession

• Faced with the invasion, Maharaja Hari Singh sought help from India.
• Lord Mountbatten, the Governor-General of India, advised the Maharaja to sign the instrument of accession before India could provide assistance.
• On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja signed the instrument of accession to the Union of India.
• Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, leader of Kashmir's popular movement, urged Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to send Indian troops to protect Kashmir from invaders.

Integration into India

• The instrument of accession was accepted by the Governor-General on October 27, 1947.
• This marked the formal integration of Jammu and Kashmir into India as per the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
• Kashmir was granted special status within the Indian Constitution, allowing autonomy over all matters except communications, foreign affairs, and defense.

First Indo-Pak War (1947-48)

• Indian troops arrived in Srinagar on the same day the accession was accepted and began operations to drive out Pakistani invaders.
• This conflict marked the first India-Pakistan war, lasting from 1947 to 1948.
• Fighting was intense, with both armies facing challenges due to difficult terrain and weather.
• The conflict continued until a ceasefire was brokered by the United Nations, effective January 1949.

Ceasefire and Line of Control

• India and Pakistan agreed to a ceasefire and sought UN arbitration, with the promise of a plebiscite to determine Kashmir's future.
• In July 1949, the ceasefire line was established, later becoming known as the Line of Control (LoC).
• This line was initially temporary but remains in place today.

Current Status of Kashmir

• About two-thirds of Kashmir is administered by India, while the rest is known as Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK).
• In 1957, POK was integrated into Pakistan and became "Azad Kashmir."
• Pakistan contends that Kashmiris have the right to self-determination through a plebiscite to decide their future.
• India maintains that Kashmir became an integral part of India with the Maharaja's signing of the instrument of accession.

Aksai Chin

China's Dispute Over Kashmir Boundaries

• China rejected the boundary agreements in northeastern Kashmir that Britain had negotiated.
• After asserting control over Tibet and Xinjiang, Chinese forces moved into northeastern Ladakh.
• China constructed a military road in Aksai Chin to connect Xinjiang and western Tibet, without India's knowledge.
• In 1962, China occupied Aksai Chin, a region northeast of Ladakh. India claims this area as part of the former princely state of Kashmir, while China claims it as part of Xinjiang.
• The clashes over this territory led to the Sino-Indian war in October 1962.
• India asserts its claims over Jammu & Kashmir territories currently under illegal occupation by both Pakistan and China.

Siachen Glacier

Operation Meghdoot (1984)

• In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot to gain control over the Siachen Glacier region.
• India captured more than 80% of the glacier, including the strategically important Saltoro Ridge.
• The UN did not specify this area in the 1948 ceasefire agreement between India and Pakistan.

Territorial Control

• During the military operations, India took control of around 1,000 square miles of territory.
• India and Pakistan engaged in combat during the 1980s and 1990s to secure strategic positions in the glacier region.

Ceasefire and Current Control

• A ceasefire was established in 2003.
• As of now, India maintains control over the entire Siachen Glacier, its tributary glaciers, and all major passes and ridges of the Saltoro Ridge.
• Pakistan holds positions at lower elevations along the spurs of the Saltoro ridgeline.

Wars Between India And Pakistan

Political Differences and Territorial Claims

• Political differences between India and Pakistan are profound and appear to be insurmountable.
• Their territorial claims remain uncompromised, leading to ongoing tensions.

Wars Between India and Pakistan

• India and Pakistan have engaged in three major wars and a short undeclared conflict.
• 1947-48 War: This was the first conflict between the two nations soon after their independence.
• 1965 War: A significant military confrontation occurred between India and Pakistan.
• 1971 War: This war was crucial in the context of the Bangladesh Liberation Movement.
• Kargil Conflict (1999): A short but intense conflict took place in the Kargil region when both countries were armed with nuclear weapons.

Overview of Major Wars

• A brief description and analysis of these major wars will follow to provide a deeper understanding of the conflicts between India and Pakistan.

Indo-Pak War of 1965

Background of the 1965 War

• India and Pakistan fought their second war over Kashmir in 1965, against the backdrop of the Cold War.
• Pakistan was allied with the US through organizations like SEATO and CENTO, receiving significant military aid.
• India, being non-aligned, was viewed unfavorably by the US.
• The India-China border conflict had strengthened ties between Pakistan and China.
• Soviet Union, wanting to keep Pakistan away from China, also offered economic cooperation to Pakistan.
• This strategic environment emboldened Pakistan to seek a military solution to the Kashmir issue.

War Strategy

• After the first Kashmir war in 1948, Pakistani strategists believed in fighting asymmetrical wars with India.
• The strategy for 1965 involved:
• Encouraging sabotage and guerrilla operations: Pakistan planned to send around 30,000 infiltrators into Jammu and Kashmir to incite a popular uprising and sabotage infrastructure.
• Military attacks: On September 1, 1965, the Pakistani army launched attacks on Indian positions, leading to significant battles.
• The war lasted for 17 days, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides and notable tank battles.

UN Involvement

• The UN, led by Secretary-General U Thant, worked to end the hostilities, holding Pakistan responsible for crossing the ceasefire line and urging India to show restraint.
• The UN Security Council passed multiple resolutions calling for ceasefire and cooperation with the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP).
• Despite efforts, including a visit by U Thant, the fighting spread across the international border.
• Resolution 211 demanded a ceasefire and withdrawal of armed personnel to pre-August 5 positions.

The Tashkent Declaration

• In January 1966, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and President Ayub Khan met in Tashkent, facilitated by the Soviet Union, to discuss the conflict.
• Shastri demanded the withdrawal of Pakistani infiltrators and proposed a "no war pact."
• Ayub Khan insisted on discussing the Kashmir issue and the need for a plebiscite.
• Ultimately, they signed the Tashkent Declaration on January 10, 1966, agreeing to withdraw forces to August 5, 1965 positions and to promote good neighborly relations.
• While presented as a peace agreement, it was more about stopping hostilities. Notably, Prime Minister Shastri passed away in Tashkent on the same night the agreement was signed.

War of 1971 and Liberation of Bangladesh

Creation of Pakistan

• Pakistan was formed as a geographically divided nation, with West Pakistan and East Pakistan separated by 1600 kilometers of Indian territory.
• East Pakistan, predominantly Bengali-speaking and home to 60% of the population, was economically dominated by business interests from West Pakistan.
• Urdu was initially declared the official language of Pakistan, sidelining Bengali until 1954 when, after significant protests, Bengali was also recognized.

Growing Discontent

• The combination of linguistic, ethnic, and economic disparities fostered dissatisfaction in East Pakistan.
• By the 1970s, resentment against West Pakistan's dominance was strong.

1970 Parliamentary Elections

• In the 1970 elections, the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won a majority but was denied power.
• General Yahya Khan, Pakistan’s military ruler, arrested Mujib and imposed martial law in East Pakistan.

Civil War and Genocide

• From 1970 to 1971, East Pakistan experienced a civil war with heavy repression from the West Pakistani military.
• The Mukti Bahini(Liberation Army) emerged to fight against the Pakistani regime.
• The Pakistani military responded with genocide, killing between 300,000 to 3 million Bengalis.
• Approximately 9 million refugees fled to India, causing a humanitarian crisis.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

• On December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched a preemptive strike against India.
• India, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, responded militarily, recognizing Bangladesh as an independent nation on December 6.
• The war lasted 13 days, with heavy casualties on both sides, including around 3,800 soldiers killed.
• On December 16, 1971, Pakistani General A.A.K. Niazi surrendered in Dhaka, marking the largest surrender of armed forces since WWII.

Post-War Agreements

• India captured significant territory and decimated the Pakistani navy.
• Following the victory, India and Pakistan signed the Shimla Agreement on August 2, 1972.
• The agreement emphasized peaceful resolution of disputes, cooperation, and respect for the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir.

Kargil War, 1999

Background

• After the 1971 war, India and Pakistan did not engage in major warfare until the 1990s, which were marked by attempts from both nations to assert control over Siachen through military presence on higher mountain ridges.
• The 1990s were also filled with tensions, particularly as Pakistan supported separatist activities in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Both countries became nuclear powers in May 1999, adding a new strategic layer to their relationship.

Between May 3 and July 26, 1999, the Kargil War took place, marking the first conventional conflict between nuclear-armed nations.

• In late 1998, infiltrators from the Pakistan army secretly occupied around 132 high-altitude positions in the Kargil region, threatening India's National Highway-1, which connects Srinagar and Leh.
• India discovered this intrusion on May 3, 1999, leading to the launch of 'Operation Vijay.'
• Approximately 200,000 Indian troops were mobilized to reclaim the encroached territory.
• Fighting occurred in challenging terrain and harsh weather, with the Indian Air Force conducting operations at high altitudes without crossing the Line of Control (LOC).

Over two months, Indian forces gradually retook 70 to 80 percent of the encroached ridges.

• The international community blamed Pakistan for the crisis.
• Pakistan Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif sought U.S. assistance to de-escalate the conflict.
• U.S. President Bill Clinton urged Sharif to withdraw Pakistani forces from the Indian side of the LOC.

Following the Washington accord on July 4, 1999, most fighting ceased, although some Pakistani forces and jihadists remained on the Indian side of the LOC.

• The Indian army launched final attacks in late July 1999, clearing the Drass subsector of Pakistani forces.
• Fighting officially ended on July 26, 1999, a day now commemorated as Kargil Vijay Diwas.

By war's end, Pakistan withdrew under international pressure and ongoing fighting. The Kargil conflict was a significant setback for Pakistan's military and political leadership. It followed closely after a successful peace process, marked by Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's bus trip to Lahore for dialogue with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.

India viewed the Kargil infiltration as a betrayal of trust by the Pakistani leadership. While the conflict internationalized the Kashmir dispute, it also underscored the importance of the LOC in maintaining peace between the two nations.

Indus Water Treaty, 1960

Indus Water Treaty: A Path to Cooperation Amidst Conflict

• The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a remarkable example of peaceful cooperation between India and Pakistan over a crucial resource: water. Despite the deep-seated animosity and conflict between the two nations, the IWT has endured for over 60 years, showcasing the potential for resolving even the most sensitive issues through dialogue and negotiation.
• Brokered by the World Bank, the IWT divides the waters of the Indus River system, setting out the rights and obligations of both countries. The Indus River originates in Tibet, flows through Kashmir, and then into Pakistan, where it drains into the Arabian Sea. The river is joined by several tributaries, including the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers.
• Following the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, there was a complex situation regarding water sharing, as the headworks were in India, and the canals carrying water were in Pakistan. Initially, India withheld water flow to Pakistan in April 1948. However, the Inter-Dominion Accord of May 1948 mandated India to provide water to Pakistani territories in exchange for annual payments, serving as a temporary arrangement.
• Negotiations for a permanent solution faced significant challenges, with both sides holding firm to their positions. However, in 1951, David Lilienthal, former head of the US Atomic Energy Commission, suggested that India and Pakistan collaborate on managing the Indus River System, possibly with support from the World Bank. This idea eventually led to the establishment of the IWT.
• The treaty was signed on September 19, 1960, by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan. It allocated the waters of the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) to Pakistan and the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) to India. The treaty also included provisions for funding and constructing dams, barrages, and other infrastructure to ensure water supply to both countries.
• Over the years, the IWT has been successful, with the establishment of the Permanent Indus Commission to oversee its implementation. However, new challenges have emerged due to technological advancements, increasing national demands for water and electricity, and the impacts of climate change.
• In 2019, tensions rose as India proposed building dams on the Chenab River, a tributary of the Indus allocated to Pakistan under the IWT. While India has the right to limited hydropower generation on these rivers, concerns in Pakistan about the cumulative effects of these projects have led to calls for international arbitration.
• The treaty does have a clause for "future cooperation," allowing for discussions on issues like climate-induced water variability and groundwater sharing. However, the historical mistrust between the two countries hampers meaningful dialogue on these pressing challenges.

Peace Process and CBMs in the 1990s
Hope springs eternal. Ordinary Indians and Pakistanis really cannot hate each other too much without crying for love which they hold for each other. Similarities are too strong between Pakistan and north Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, UP and Delhi.

• Rural areas are very similar in terms of living, livelihood, weather, customs, and culture.
• Urban areas show parallels in architecture, buildings, food, and street crowds.
• Lahore resembles Delhi, with old parts of Lahore evoking memories of Chandni Chowk or parts of old Lucknow.
• The food is remarkably similar, with shared recipes from Delhi, Lucknow, Marwar, Peshwar, and Lahore.
• Pakistani youth enjoy dancing to Bollywood songs, reflecting the cultural connections.

Partition had separated friends and colleagues. Take the example of the ‘Frontier Gandhi’.

• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, known as the ‘Frontier Gandhi’, was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi and a leader of the Pashtuns who advocated for a united India.
• He and his group, the Khudai Khidmatgar(Servants of God), faced severe oppression from colonial authorities.
• When the Indian National Congress accepted the partition, with North West Frontier Province(NWFP) going to Pakistan, Badshah Khan was devastated.
• He felt betrayed and told the Indian leaders that they had “thrown us to the wolves.”
• Badshah Khan spent much of the 1960s and 70s in jail or exile and died in 1988 while still under house arrest.
• Despite his strong ties to India, he wished to be buried in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, not Pakistan.

Strong bonds of religious syncretism, faith and beliefs, pilgrimage centres, food, culture and folk and classical music, language and dress emotionally bind the elites and the masses alike in Pakistan and parts of northern India.

• These emotional ties have not weakened; rather they have withstood all distrusts and wars.

Since the 1990s, as India’s economy expanded and its influence at global level increased, the notable change has been a conciliatory approach towards Pakistan – in fact towards all the South Asian neighbours.

• A peaceful and friendly neighbourhood became essential for India to establish itself as a credible emerging power on the global stage.
• No nation can become a credible power without its neighbours recognizing its primacy in the region.
• Taking care of the neighbourhood became even more crucial in light of India’s high and sustained economic growth over the past twenty-five years.
• Throughout the 1990s, every Prime Minister of India made efforts to reach out to Pakistan, emphasizing the importance of peaceful relations and cooperation.

Peace Process and Confidence Building Measures (CBMs)

• In the late 1990s, India and Pakistan engaged in a series of dialogues aimed at reducing tensions and building trust.
• These dialogues included discussions on various issues, such as trade, travel, and security cooperation.
• During this period, India also took steps to enhance people-to-people contacts, such as facilitating easier travel for citizens across the border.

Track-II Diplomacy

In the 1990s, India took steps to improve relations with Pakistan.

• The Indian government, under Prime Minister IK Gujral, promoted people-to-people contacts to build trust.
• More visas were issued to Pakistani nationals, and there was increased interaction between academics and media from both countries.
• Cross-border trade was also encouraged, a process known as Track-II Diplomacy.
• Despite historical tensions, India aimed to shape relations through trade and economics.
• During his tenure, Gujral met with his Pakistani counterpart four times.
• Official dialogues were resumed, with the Foreign Secretaries of both countries meeting three times.
• In June 1997, both nations outlined topics for a broad-based dialogue and proposed a mechanism for conducting talks.

Composite Dialogue

1990s Difficulties and India's Response

• During the 1990s, Pakistan continued to support militancy in Kashmir, causing ongoing tensions.
• Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's government made efforts to engage Pakistan and change its hostile behavior.
• In 1998, both countries became nuclear powers, prompting Vajpayee to revive dialogue with Pakistan in this new geostrategic context.
• The first round of the renewed Composite Dialogueoccurred in October-November 1998, covering eight subjects:
  • Peace and security, including Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs)
  • Jammu and Kashmir
  • Siachen
  • Tulbul navigation project
  • Sir Creek
  • Trade and Economic Cooperation
  • Terrorism and Drug Trafficking
  • Friendly Exchanges in various fields
• Despite the discussions, no agreements were reached on any of the subjects.

Lahore Visit

Prime Minister Vajpayee's Approach to Neighbourhood Diplomacy

• Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee believed that while a country can choose its friends, it cannot choose its neighbours.
• Despite challenges, Vajpayee took a bold step by riding the inaugural Lahore-Delhi-Lahore bus service in February 1999. This marked India's most extensive and high-profile engagement with Pakistan in 25 years.
• During this visit, Vajpayee met with Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, leading to significant agreements:
• Lahore Declaration: A commitment to resolve outstanding issues through bilateral dialogue within the framework of the Shimla Agreement.
• MOU on Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs): Initiatives aimed at building trust between the two nations.
• Joint Statement: A reaffirmation of both countries' commitment to combat terrorism in all its forms and to hold regular political dialogues at the foreign minister level.
• However, the positive momentum from the Lahore visit was quickly undermined by Pakistan's military actions in Kargil in May 1999.
• This led to a political standoff and halted the progress initiated by Vajpayee.
• Further complicating matters was the military coup in October 1999, where General Pervez Musharraf ousted the elected government of Nawaz Sharif, impacting India's security concerns and cross-border intrusions.
• The hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight IC814 on December 24, 1999, was a stark example of the threats posed by Pakistan-based terrorist groups, allegedly working in conjunction with the Pakistani army and its Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI).
• The year 2000 saw continued terrorist incidents and violence from Pakistan-based jihadist groups, including the attack on the Red Fort in New Delhi on December 22, 2000, by Lashkar-e-Taiba, and earlier attacks at Srinagar airport and an assassination attempt on the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir.

Agra Summit

Two years later, despite political tensions and ongoing terrorism incidents, Prime Minister Vajpayee remained committed to reviving the Composite Dialogue he had initiated in 1998.

Vajpayee extended an invitation to Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf to visit New Delhi, emphasizing poverty as a common enemy and agreeing to discuss the Kashmir issue.

India took unilateral confidence-building steps, including:

• Release of Pakistani fishermen.
• Opening of the Line of Control (LOC) for Kashmiri movement.
• Offering fellowships to Pakistani students to study in India.
• Reducing tariffs on imports from Pakistan.
• Facilitating regular military contacts between the two countries.

Vajpayee and Musharraf met in Agra on July 15-16, 2001, for intense discussions.

Despite extended one-on-one and delegation meetings, the Agra Summit failed to produce an agreement due to differing perspectives.

A major point of contention was the core issue of Kashmir for Pakistan, while India prioritized addressing cross-border terrorism.

‘Coercive’ Diplomacy

• Incidents of terrorism persisted throughout the 1990s. Notable events included the attack on the Indian Parliament on December 13, 2001, and an earlier attack on the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) legislature on October 1, 2001. In response, India decided to militarily confront Pakistan, launching its largest military mobilization since the Kargil conflict, known as "Operation Parakram." India also halted or significantly reduced all contacts with Pakistan. These actions were collectively referred to as "coercive diplomacy."
• During this period, the United States intervened to restrain both countries and prevent the situation from escalating. International diplomatic efforts led to the withdrawal of Indian and Pakistani troops from the international border in October 2002.
• Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, known for his statesmanship, believed in peace and friendship with Pakistan. On April 18, 2003, he extended a hand of friendship during a rally in Srinagar, and just ten days later, Pakistan responded positively.
• This led to immediate developments, including the restoration of full diplomatic relations, the resumption of bus services, increased movement of parliamentarians, businessmen, and others under Track-II diplomacy, and the release of fishermen and prisoners. There was a noticeable desire among the people of both India and Pakistan to turn a new chapter in their relations, with visible warmth and eagerness to improve bilateral ties.

Vajpayee in Islamabad and Musharraf in Delhi

Indo-Pak Joint Statement (January 2004)

• During the SAARC summit in Islamabad on January 6, 2004, India and Pakistan issued a joint statement welcoming positive developments in their bilateral relations.

Composite Dialogue

• Both countries agreed to restart the Composite Dialogue in February 2004 to address and resolve all outstanding issues, including Jammu and Kashmir (J&K).

• After the change of government in India in May 2004, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government, led by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, continued with the Composite Dialogue.

Visit of President Musharraf (April 2005)

President Musharraf visited New Delhi from April 16 to 18, 2005, during which significant progress was made in various areas, including:

• People-to-people contacts
• Easing of visa and travel restrictions
• Enhancing road, rail, and air links
• Proposed gas pipelines (IPI from Iran and TAPI from Turkmenistan via Afghanistan and Pakistan)
• Confidence-building measures in conventional and nuclear areas

Kashmir Discussions

• During the discussions, Prime Minister Singh emphasized that while there would be no redrawing of borders or another partition, efforts would be made to bring people from both sides together and create an atmosphere of trust and confidence.

Impact of Mumbai Terror Attacks (November 2008)

• The phase of seeking peace and building confidence-building measures (CBMs) concluded with the Mumbai terror attacks in November 2008, which resulted in around 200 deaths.
• India reacted with anger and disillusionment over the attacks carried out by Pakistan-based terrorists.

Shift to Coercive Diplomacy

• In the aftermath of the Mumbai attacks, India shifted to a policy of coercive diplomacy, avoiding a strong military response to prevent escalation.

Change in Approach under Modi

• Under Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India adopted a more muscular approach, including cross-border surgical strikes.

Previous Incident: Samjhauta Express Bombing (2007)

• Prior to the Mumbai attacks, there was the Samjhauta Express bombing in 2007, which killed 68 civilians, most of whom were Pakistani.

Terrorism is the ‘Core’ Issue

• Terrorism is the central issue in India-Pakistan relations. India often responds with restraint and highlights the threat of cross-border terrorism to the international community. The goal is to build international pressure on Pakistan for permanent behavior change.
• In Pakistan, anti-India rhetoric is politically beneficial, leading governments to indulge in India-bashing to divert attention from their own shortcomings. The Pakistani government allows terrorist organizations and their leaders to operate freely, engaging in anti-India propaganda and activities.
• Despite numerous efforts to resolve differences and reach some understanding on select issues, the overall relationship has never truly improved. The Composite Dialogue aimed to address relations comprehensively, including the contentious issue of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), but ultimately produced no meaningful results. Distrust and hostility continue to dominate.
• For India, the core issue is terrorism; for Pakistan, it is Kashmir; and for the international community, it is nuclear security and stability. These conflicting priorities create ongoing tension without resolution.

India’s Policy Towards Pakistan Since 2014

2014-2016: Strengthening Ties and Setbacks

• After the BJP's victory in the 2014 elections, Prime Minister Narendra Modi invited all SAARC leaders to his swearing-in ceremony, signaling a commitment to regional cooperation.
• The Modi government introduced the "Neighborhood First" policy, emphasizing strong ties with neighboring countries.
• In December 2015, Modi made a surprise stop in Lahore to meet with Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, reinforcing diplomatic efforts.
• Modi and Sharif had previously agreed on the "Comprehensive Dialogue" during a meeting in Paris.
• However, relations soured after the Pathankot Air Force Station attack on January 2, 2016, carried out by the Islamist militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM).

Pathankot Attack and Its Aftermath

• The Pathankot attack, attributed to JeM, was seen as an effort to disrupt the fragile peace process between India and Pakistan.
• On September 18, 2016, another deadly attack occurred in Uri, Kashmir, where JeM terrorists killed 19 Indian soldiers.
• In response to increasing cross-border terrorism, India withdrew from the 16th SAARC summit scheduled in Islamabad in November 2016.
• On September 28, 2016, India conducted "surgical strikes" against terrorist launchpads across the Line of Control (LoC) in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, resulting in significant terrorist casualties.

Shift in Policy and Public Sentiment

• Since 2016, India has aimed to diplomatically isolate Pakistan and induce changes in Pakistan's behavior through international pressure.
• Public opinion in India has strongly favored avoiding dialogue with Pakistan.
• A 2017 BBC poll indicated that only 5% of Indians viewed Pakistan positively, reflecting deep-seated animosity.

2019: Escalation and Conflict

• Relations further deteriorated in 2019 following the Pulwama attack on February 14, where 40 Indian paramilitary troops were killed.
• In retaliation, on February 26, 2019, Indian Air Force warplanes struck terrorist camps in Balakot, Pakistan, escalating tensions between the two countries.
• India revoked Pakistan's Most Favored Nation trade status and significantly increased customs duties on imports from Pakistan.
• Pakistan responded by closing its airspace to Indian flights.

Revocation of Article 370: Domestic and International Impact

• India's abrogation of Article 370, which granted special status to Jammu and Kashmir, had significant domestic and international repercussions.
• Pakistan responded by recalling its ambassador, expelling the Indian High Commissioner, and severing bilateral and trade relations.