Growth of Urban Settlements in India | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding Urbanization in India

Demographic-Spatial Aspects

• This aspect focuses on the shift of people from rural to urban areas, the population density in urban areas, and the change in land use patterns from agriculture to non-agricultural activities.

Economic Aspects

• Economic aspects of urbanization involve the transition from agricultural to non-agricultural occupations. Cities, being centers of diverse economic opportunities, attract people from rural areas. Factors such as rural poverty, the backwardness of the agricultural economy, and the decline of cottage and small industries push villagers to urban areas. These pull and push factors of migration play a crucial role in the urbanization process.

Sociocultural Aspects

• Sociocultural aspects of urbanization highlight the increasing diversity and heterogeneity in urban areas. Cities serve as meeting points for various races, cultures, and communities.

Urbanization in Ancient and Medieval India

The process of urbanization in ancient and medieval India was marked by distinctive political, economic, religious, and socio-cultural features. These features can be categorized under three broad headings:

Political, Demographic, and Spatial Factors

• The early processes of urbanization were closely linked to the rise and fall of political regimes and the cultural history of India. Cities emerged during periods of political patronage, with their composition centered around rulers, their kin, and followers engaged in agricultural activities and surplus extraction.
• Fortification, including walls and ditches, was a significant physical feature of traditional towns. Town planning considered defense needs and the settlement of various castes in separate wards, along with locations for manufacturing, commerce, trade, religion, recreation, administration, and justice.

Economic Factors

• Despite political fluctuations and changing religious influences, the social and economic institutions of traditional cities exhibited stability. Guild formation was a notable feature, with merchants and craftsmen organized into guilds called shreni.
• Guilds based on occupation and different castes performed crucial functions in banking, trading, manufacturing, and, to a limited extent, judicial matters.

Religious and Sociocultural Factors

• Traditional urban centers often patronized specific religions or sects, influencing the social organization and culture of towns. For instance, Pataliputra reflected Brahminical Hindu civilization under Chandra Gupta Maurya, while Buddhism flourished under Ashoka.
• The traditional towns were characterized by the coexistence of multiple religious, sectarian, and caste groups. Specialist castes emerged in larger towns, with each ethnic or religious group governed by its customary laws.

Urbanization in the Early Colonial Period

• The arrival of European colonial traders marked a new phase in urbanization in India. Coastal cities grew as ports and trading centers, with European trading posts established for trade purposes.
• As British power expanded in the 19th century, cities like Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras became political centers. The introduction of advanced technology facilitated the emergence of new economic and political institutions, as well as improved communication modes like telegraph, railways, and roads.
• In the 19th century, urbanization grew modestly, but the destruction of cottage and small industries in rural areas pushed displaced artisans and laborers to urban centers. Large-scale migration of rural labor, especially from Bihar and eastern United Provinces to jute mills and industrial destinations, occurred to seize new economic opportunities.
• With the spread of education, urban centers transformed as educated individuals joined the bureaucracy and took up various professions. Urban centers evolved into hubs of new social and political ideas, diverse economic activities, and heterogeneous populations.
• The new process of urbanization offered various economic opportunities and social mobility, although it primarily benefited upper caste and class individuals.

Growth of Urban Settlement in Contemporary India

• Contemporary India is experiencing rapid urbanization as society undergoes significant transitions. Modern urban centers perform diversified functions encompassing economic, administrative, and political roles, making it challenging to classify towns and cities based on a single activity.
• Urban areas are classified based on prominent socio-economic and political features, such as historical cities (e.g., Delhi, Calcutta), industrial cities (e.g., Ghaziabad, Kanpur), religious cities (e.g., Mathura, Hardwar), and cities known for film-making (e.g., Bombay, Madras).
• In sociology, urbanization is discussed in terms of demographic, spatial, economic, and socio-cultural aspects. A town in the Indian context is defined by criteria such as a minimum population of 5,000, a majority of non-agricultural occupations, a certain population density, and the presence of industrial areas, large housing settlements, tourist attractions, and civic amenities.

Spatial Pattern

• Spatial disparities characterize the Indian urban scenario, emerging from regional disparities, imbalanced population concentration, and changes in the census definition of urban areas.
• Over-urbanization occurs when towns exceed their capacity to accommodate population and provide civic amenities, as seen in cities like Bombay and Calcutta. Sub-urbanization, exemplified by Delhi, involves the urbanization of rural areas around towns, characterized by increased urban land use, expanded municipal limits, and intensive communication between town and surrounding areas.

Economic Aspect

• Urbanization is viewed as a natural consequence of economic development, involving a shift of labor and resources from rural to urban sectors. Indian cities and towns are recognized as catalysts for economic development despite facing challenges.
• New cities have emerged in previously forested areas, with industrial towns like Jamshedpur providing employment and transforming the social landscape. Areas that were once socio-economically backward have become prosperous and cosmopolitan.
• Occupational diversification and migration are crucial aspects of contemporary urbanization. Despite planned development, the percentage of the labor force in agriculture remained static between 1901 and 1971. The urban population increased, but there was not a corresponding rise in labor force participation in urban manufacturing, construction, and services.
• The primary sector's share in urban employment rose, while the secondary sector's share declined, contrary to expectations. The tertiary sector showed slight recovery, with a significant traditional/rural component of occupation persisting in urban areas.
• Widespread unemployment among unskilled and marginal workers, as well as educated unemployment, is a notable feature of Indian cities, with a significant concentration of educated unemployed in major metropolitan areas.

Urbanization and Migration

• Migration from rural areas to urban centers is a continuous and vital aspect of urbanization in India. The Urban Commission of India emphasizes the importance of rural-urban migration for the development of rural areas, providing opportunities for landless laborers, harijans, and adivasis.
• Urban-ward migration in India gained momentum in the late 1930s, with a significant portion of migrants being displaced from Pakistan, rural areas of the same state, and rural areas of other states. An important feature of urban immigration is its predominantly male character.
• Unemployment in rural areas pushes surplus rural labor to urban centers in search of employment. Factors pulling sections of the rural population, including affluent groups, toward cities include expectations of glamorous jobs, better housing, medical, educational, and communication facilities.
• Industrialization should not be seen as a prerequisite for urbanization, as migration from villages often begins when agricultural saturation is reached due to an imbalanced land/man ratio in the countryside.

Social Stratification in Urban India

• Social stratification in urban India has evolved, with caste transforming into class, yet caste systems remain present with notable differences. Research shows that individuals in cities like Calcutta still rank themselves by caste. Occupational categories also play a role in stratification, as seen in the interactions of rickshaw drivers in Lucknow, who, despite differing religious and caste backgrounds, share similar patterns due to their common occupation.
• In urban areas, caste does not significantly determine occupational choices, but both caste and class have their own contexts and situational relevance. Indian cities must be understood within their cultural heritage, where migrants bring in various traditions, and established traditions undergo changes. For instance, in modern cities, aspects of great traditions are modified; devotional approaches to God are becoming more prevalent, and technological advancements are being integrated into religious practices.

Status of Women in Urban India

• The status of women in urban India is generally higher than that of their rural counterparts. Urban women tend to be more educated and liberal, with a significant increase in literacy rates compared to rural areas. They are increasingly aware of their rights and are more empowered to assert them. The average age of marriage for girls in cities is also higher than in villages.
• Despite these advancements, women in the urban labor market face significant disadvantages. Discrimination persists, and opportunities for employment, training, and promotion are often unequal. Women typically find themselves in lower-status, poorly paid occupations such as teaching, nursing, social work, secretarial, and clerical jobs. Even women who have achieved professional education struggle to balance career and home responsibilities.
• Single women or those trying to combine marriage with a career face challenges, as societal expectations often prioritize the husband’s career over the wife’s. This leads to frustration for many women, a situation less prevalent among rural women. Higher education among urban girls is linked to smaller family sizes, and while women’s education has delayed marriage and reduced birth rates, traditional practices like arranged marriages with dowry persist.
• Divorce and remarriage are becoming more common among urban women, with many initiating legal separations due to incompatibility or mental distress. Politically, urban women are more active, with increasing participation in elections and holding significant political positions. Unlike rural women, who remain dependent on men, urban women enjoy greater independence and freedom. While traditional aspects of family, caste, kinship, and religion still play a role in urban settings, new forms of social organization are also emerging.