Foreign Accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers | History Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• The Indian subcontinent has never been isolated; it has always been a place where traders, travelers, pilgrims, settlers, soldiers, goods, and ideas have moved back and forth across its borders.
• Because of this, many foreign texts mention India, offering insights into how people from other lands viewed India and its people.

Greek Accounts

• Greek references to India date back to the 5th century BCE, with increasing frequency over time.
• The Indica by Megasthenes, an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, is a notable work that, despite being preserved only in fragments, provides valuable information about Maurya administration, social classes, and economic activities.
• Greek accounts mention Alexander the Great and his contemporary Sandrokottas, identified as Chandragupta Maurya, helping establish ancient Indian chronology.
• Greek and Roman texts from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, such as those by Arrian,Strabo, and Pliny the Elder, detail Indian ports and trade items between India and the Roman Empire.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography, both providing data on ancient geography and commerce, are crucial for understanding Indian Ocean trade.
• The works of Kosmos Indikopleustes, a 6th-century scholar, also contribute to our understanding of India, mentioning Christians in India and Sri Lanka.

Chinese Accounts

• Chinese monks, such as Faxian and Xuanzang, traveled to India to collect Buddhist texts, meet Indian monks, and visit places of Buddhist learning.
• Faxian, traveling from 399 to 414 CE, describes the social, religious, and economic conditions in Gupta-era India, while Xuanzang provides a similar account for the time of Harsha.
• Yijing, another 7th-century traveler, lived in the great monastery of Nalanda for ten years.
• These accounts are valuable for understanding the history of Buddhism and various aspects of Indian life during their times

Arab Scholars

• The 9th-century Abbasid Caliph Al-Mamun established the Beyt-al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad, where scholars translated texts from Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit into Arabic.
• Arab scholars, such as Al-Biruni, traveled to India to study its people and ancient texts. Al-Biruni’s Tahqiq-i-Hind covers various topics, helping modern historians identify the Gupta era's beginning.
• Persian texts from early medieval times, like the Chachnama and Shahnama of Firdausi, also refer to India and its trade.

Foreign Accounts: Fa Hien’s Account

Fa Hien (Faxian), a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, traveled to India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II (circa 4th century CE) in search of original Buddhist texts. He stayed in India until 411 CE and visited various places including Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilvastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajgriha. His observations reflected the political, religious, social, and economic conditions of the Gupta Empire.

Social Conditions

• Fa Hien noted the peacefulness of India, the rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the administration.
• He remarked that travel within the country was safe and did not require passports.
• He observed that most respectable individuals were vegetarians, with meat consumption limited to low castes and untouchables. Most people avoided onions, garlic, meat, and wine.
• Fa Hien mentioned that Shudras were kept outside towns and had to make noise to enter, indicating a social hierarchy.

Religious Conditions

• Fa Hien observed that Buddhism was still flourishing, although theistic Hinduism was widespread.
• He noted a transition from sacrificial Brahminism to Hinduism during the Gupta period.
• He described the punishments for crimes, noting that the death penalty was rare and most crimes were punished by fines.
• Fa Hien recorded the presence of Mahayan and Hinayana Buddhist vihars, indicating the diversity within Buddhism.
• He observed a cordial relationship between Hindus and Buddhists, suggesting a degree of religious tolerance.

Economic Conditions

• Fa Hien described the Gupta Empire as prosperous, with the government’s income primarily from revenue taxes set at one-sixth of total production.
• He noted the absence of poll-tax and land tax and emphasized the wealth and virtue of the people.
• Charitable institutions and rest houses for travelers were common, and the capital had an excellent hospital.
• Fa Hien admired Patliputra and the palace of Ashoka, highlighting the city’s significance.

Political Conditions

• Fa Hien did not focus on the political conditions in his account, as his primary interest was in religious matters.
• He did not mention Chandra Gupta II by name but implied that the Gupta administration was benevolent and effective.
• Hiuen Tsang, another traveler, praised Harsha as a great king with a strong army, indicating a positive view of political leadership during that period.

Criticisms of Faxian’s Account

• Compared to Hiuen Tsang, Faxian was less observant and informative about the social, economic, and political conditions of society.
• While Hiuen Tsang thoroughly described the period of King Harshavardhana, Faxian did not mention Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
• Faxian portrayed an idealized version of Indian society, depicting happy and content people living in peace and prosperity.
• His account includes very few descriptions of ordinary people's lives, and those that are present tend to be idealized. Faxian focused mainly on Buddhist monasteries, practices, and pilgrimage sites.
• Descriptions such as the absence of corporal punishment, theft, sale of liquor, and the prevalence of vegetarianism are not supported by other contemporary sources and require refutation.
• Faxian came to India as a Buddhist adherent with the intention of presenting India as an ideal to the Chinese people. As a result, his approach lacked descriptive and analytical depth

Foreign Accounts: Megasthenes' Account

• Megasthenes, an ancient Greek historian, diplomat, and explorer, visited India around 302 BC during the Mauryan court of Chandragupta Maurya. He was an ambassador of the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator and documented his observations in a book called Indica, which is now lost but reconstructed from later writings.
• Later authors such as Arrian, Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny referred to Indica, with Arrian holding Megasthenes in high regard while Strabo and Pliny treating him with less respect.

Society

• India is inhabited by diverse indigenous races, with no foreign colonies and no Indian colonies abroad.
• Indians are of above-average stature due to abundant food, clean water, and pure air, and they are skilled in various arts.
• Theft is rare, and wine is consumed only during sacrifices. Houses and property are generally left unguarded.
• Indians seldom resort to legal disputes, trusting each other for deposits without the need for seals or witnesses.
• Megasthenes divides the Indian population into seven castes:
• 1. Philosophers (Brahmins and Sramanas): Exempt from public duties, making prophecies at the beginning of the year.
• 2. Farmers: Public benefactors, protected from harm during wars, most numerous, exempt from fighting, paying land tribute and a quarter of their produce to the state.
• 3. Herders: Live outside villages, hunting and trapping crop-destroying animals.
• 4. Artisans: Create weapons and tools, exempt from taxes and supported by the state.
• 5. Military: Organized for war, maintaining peace during peaceful times at state expense.
• 6. Overseers: Carry out administrative tasks.
• 7. Councilors and Assessors: Respected wise individuals deliberating on public affairs.
• Megasthenes notes that no one in India could marry outside their clan or follow another's occupation, highlighting hereditary occupation and endogamy.
• He also states that there was no slavery in Maurya India, and all Indians were free.

Economy

• Gold, silver, copper, and iron are abundant, with tin and other metals used for tools, weapons, ornaments, and various articles.
• India's fertile plains support widespread irrigation, with main crops including rice, millet, bosporum, cereals, pulses, and other food plants.
• There are two crop cycles per year due to summer and winter rains.
• No famines occur because of reliable seasonal crops, spontaneously growing fruits and edible roots, and the sacred regard warriors have for agriculture and animal husbandry.
• Greek texts quoting Megasthenes mention that all land in India was owned by the king.

Polity

• Built at the confluence of the Son and Ganga rivers.
• Surrounded by a moat and protected by a timber palisade.
• Had gates and towers, with wood as the main construction material due to flood exposure.
• Royal road connecting the capital with the northwest frontier, marked by stones indicating distances.

Royal Court

• King’s daily schedule recorded by Megasthenes.
• Open palace for audiences and justice administration.
• King engaged in sports such as hunting, races, and animal fights.
• Existence of democratic forms of government in Indian cities.

Civil Administration

• King actively involved in administration, assisted by Councilors and Assessors.
• Superior civil officials overseen agronomoi and astynomoi town officials.
• Megasthenes describes six committees in charge of various municipal aspects.

Law and Justice

• King administers justice, with severe criminal laws including mutilation.
• No written laws.

Military Administration

• Army controlled by committees overseeing different military branches.
• State provides salary, arms, and equipment.

Veracity of Megasthenes’ Account

• Idealistic social descriptions, such as rarity of theft and absence of slavery, lack corroboration from other sources.
• Confusion between caste and occupation in class system classification.
• Absence of slavery contradicts literary and epigraphic evidence.
• Inconsistent economic descriptions, such as absence of famine.
• Political descriptions, like absence of written law, are incorrect.
• Strabo’s criticism of Megasthenes’ writings.
• Megasthenes’ account provides valuable information despite inconsistencies and exaggerations.

Strange Imaginations and Fantastical Stories

• Megasthenes depicted India as unconquerable, justifying Seleucus’s retreat.
• Described Indian Herakles as a native of India.
• Account of bizarre creatures and fantastical stories.

Other Issues with Available Accounts

• Lack of critical judgment and misunderstanding due to language barriers.
• Strabo’s criticism of Megasthenes as a liar.
• Incomplete extracts of Indica provide valuable insights despite inconsistencies.
• Megasthenes’ account is not dismissed as worthless storytelling.