Paleolithic Period: Hunting and Gathering | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The Indian Stone Age is categorized into the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods based on geological age, the types and technologies of stone tools, and the subsistence patterns of the people.

The Palaeolithic period is further divided into three phases: Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic.

• Lower Palaeolithic: Approximately 2 million years ago to 100,000 years ago.
• Middle Palaeolithic: About 100,000 to 40,000 years ago.
• Upper Palaeolithic: Approximately 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.

However, it's important to note that these time ranges can vary significantly between different archaeological sites.

• The Palaeolithic cultures are associated with the Pleistocene geological era, while the Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures belong to the Holocene era.
• Stone Age cultures did not develop uniformly across the Indian subcontinent; there were regional variations in their features, and the dates for different sites also varied considerably.
• Each phase of the Stone Age is characterized by specific tools, but this does not imply complete uniformity across different sites. For instance, certain tools associated with one phase might be found in another phase as well.
• For example, celts are typically linked with the Neolithic period, but they have been found as late as the historical period in some areas of eastern India.
• Regarding subsistence patterns, it is important to understand that hunting and gathering did not cease with the advent of animal and plant domestication. Many agricultural communities continued to hunt and forage for food.
• In fact, these subsistence activities remain prevalent in certain regions of the subcontinent even today.

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Introduction

• Palaeolithic culture emerged during the Pleistocene period, approximately 2 million years ago, a time marked by the Great Ice Age when ice covered much of the Earth's surface.
• This era was primarily characterized by a hunting and food-gathering lifestyle.
• The term "Palaeolithic," meaning "Old Stone Age," was introduced by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. "Palaeo" means "old," and "lithic" means "stone." In India, Palaeolithic stones were first discovered by Robert Bruce Foot in 1863.

Tools of the Palaeolithic Age

• Palaeolithic tools included items such as clubs, sharpened stones, choppers, hand axes, scrapers, spears, bows and arrows, harpoons, needles, and scratch awls.
• These tools were typically made from hard rocks like quartzite, leading to the nickname "Quartzite Man" for Palaeolithic people.

Types of Tools:

• Handaxe: A core tool, also known as a biface, worked on both sides. It is roughly triangular, broad at one end and pointed at the other, used for cutting and digging.
• Cleaver: A flattish tool with a broad cutting edge, used for clearing and splitting objects like tree trunks.
• Chopper: A large, unifacial tool used for chopping purposes.
• Chopping Tool: A massive core tool, flaked alternately on both sides to create a wavy cutting edge, used for similar purposes as the chopper but more effectively due to its sharper edge.
• Flake: A crude-shaped tool produced by applying force on a stone.
• Side Scraper: A tool made from a flake or blade with continuous retouch along a border, used for scraping barks of trees and animal skins.
• Burin: A small tool made on a blade, used for engraving on soft stones, bones, or walls of rock shelters and cores.

Acheulian Tradition

• The Acheulian tradition is associated with advanced and symmetrical handaxes and cleavers, often found in river terraces linked to Pleistocene glaciation phases.
• Factory sites from this period are typically located near raw material sources and contain various stages of stone tool preparation.

Phases of Palaeolithic Age in India

(1) Early or Lower Palaeolithic (50,000 – 100,000 BC)

• Tools included handaxes, cleavers, choppers, and chopping tools made by removing flakes from stone blocks until the desired shape was achieved.
• Raw materials varied by region:
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  • Quartzite was commonly used, along with quartz in some areas.
  • Limestone was used in Hunsgi, Karnataka.
  • Pink granite was preferred in Lalitpur, Central India.
  • Basalt was used in parts of Maharashtra and Central India.
• The earliest stone tool assemblages belong to the Sohanian and Acheulian cultures.

Sohanian Culture:

• Sites found in the Siwalik Hills of North-west India and Pakistan.
• Tools dominated by pebbles, blades, and chopper/chopping tools.
• Animal remains suggest an environment with water sources, tree vegetation, and grass steppes.

Acheulian Culture:

• Hunter-gatherer culture found across various climates in India.
• Sites densely concentrated in central India and the Eastern Ghats due to adequate rainfall and rich resources.
• Notable sites include Bori in Maharashtra and Bhimbetka rock shelters.

(2) Middle Palaeolithic (100,000 – 40,000 BC)

• Tools made from smaller, lighter flakes and blades, often used for making wooden tools and processing animal hides.
• Raw materials shifted to fine-grained siliceous rocks like chert and jasper, supplementing quartzite, quartz, and basalt.
• Tool factory sites at chert outcrops in central India and Rajasthan.
• Sites were sparser than in the Lower Palaeolithic due to colder, glaciated conditions.
• New rock shelters occupied in regions like Tamil Nadu.
• Significant sites include Kalpi in UP, Belan valley, Thar region, and various sites in central and peninsular India.

(3) Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 – 10,000 BC)

• Characterized by burins and scrapers, with advances in making parallel-sided blades.
• Tools showed regional diversity, with a trend towards smaller sizes due to environmental adaptations.
• Sites included Belan and Son valleys, Siddhi district in Madhya Pradesh, Chota Nagpur plateau, and various locations in north and south India.

Palaeolithic Art (Upper Palaeolithic Era)

• Prehistoric art marks the beginning of the history of art and provides a valuable insight into the world of prehistoric people. This art, which includes rock paintings and engravings, offers a glimpse into the lives and beliefs of our ancient ancestors.
• Rock art encompasses not only paintings but also petroglyphs—images created by removing material from a rock surface through techniques like engraving, bruising, hammering, chiselling, or scooping. Prehistoric art can be found in permanent locations, such as cave paintings, or in portable forms like figurines. These artifacts were clearly integral to community life and may have held cultic or religious significance.
• For instance, a carved bone object from the Upper Palaeolithic period, discovered at Lohanda Nala in the Belan Valley, Uttar Pradesh, has been interpreted by some as a mother goddess figurine and by others as a harpoon. Similarly, animal teeth found in a cave at Kurnool, showing grooves that suggest they were worn as ornaments, further illustrate the significance of these artifacts.

Earliest Forms of Art

• The earliest forms of art from the Upper Palaeolithic period include pieces of ostrich eggshell engraved with crosshatched designs. For example, a piece of ostrich eggshell with criss-cross designs was found at Patne, along with perforated beads made from ostrich eggshell. These beads were discovered at various sites, including Patne and the Bhimbetka rock shelters.
• The site of Baghor I in Madhya Pradesh provides intriguing evidence of an Upper Palaeolithic shrine, featuring a circular platform of sandstone rubble with a central stone displaying a striking pattern of concentric triangular laminations. This practice of creating circular rubble platforms and worshipping similar stones continues among the Kol and Baiga tribal communities today.

Earliest Paintings

• The earliest paintings at Bhimbetka, dating back to the Upper Palaeolithic period, depict scenes of human activities such as hunting, dancing, and gathering. These paintings, created using natural pigments, offer a vivid portrayal of the daily lives and social interactions of these ancient communities.

Distribution of Palaeolithic Sites

The distribution of Palaeolithic tools provides insights into the areas inhabited and traversed by hunter-gatherers, as well as their environmental conditions.

North and West India

Kashmir

• The Kashmir Valley, surrounded by the Pir Panjal Hills and the Himalayas, yielded a Palaeolithic handaxe near Pahalgam on the River Lidder.
• However, Palaeolithic tools are scarce in Kashmir due to its intense cold during glacial periods.

Potwar Region

• Located between the Pir Panjal and Salt Range mountains in present-day West Punjab and Pakistan.
• This region was marked by tectonic activity, leading to the formation of rivers Indus and Sohan.
• The Sohan Valley yielded numerous Palaeolithic tools, with significant sites including Adial,Balwal, and Chauntra.
• Other sites along the banks of rivers Beas,Rangange, and Sirsa also produced Palaeolithic tools.

Delhi

• Palaeolithic sites in Delhi range from the lower Palaeolithic to the microlithic periods.
• Excavations at Anangpur in the Badarpur hills revealed thousands of early and late Acheulian tools, indicating a significant lower Palaeolithic habitation and factory site.

Belan Valley, Uttar Pradesh

• Detailed studies in the Belan Valley have documented a sequence of stone age industries from the lower Palaeolithic to the neolithic and protohistoric periods.

Rajasthan

• Palaeolithic tools, including lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic types, have been discovered around Ajmer, with stray finds in the Luni Valley.
• The Didwana area in western Rajasthan has yielded early to middle Palaeolithic tools, while the Luni River complex is rich in Palaeolithic sites.
• Many Palaeolithic sites are found along the Luni river and its tributaries, with tools ranging from scrapers to points.
• The Wagaon and Kadamali rivers in Mewar are notable for their Middle Palaeolithic sites, with a variety of tools discovered.
• Mogara hill near Jodhpur appears to have been a factory site for lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic as well as mesolithic tools.

Gujarat

• Palaeolithic artefacts have been found along the rivers Sabarmati,Mahi, and their tributaries, with lower Palaeolithic tools reported from the Sabarmati Valley and Saurashtra.
• Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been discovered near Bhandarpur, while the river Bhader in Saurashtra is rich in Palaeolithic assemblages.
• Palaeolithic tools, including cleavers, handaxes, and choppers, have been found in the Kutch area.
• The Narbada river and its tributaries are rich in Palaeolithic sites, with many handaxes and cleavers reported.
• Lower Palaeolithic and later artefacts have been found along the Konkan coast up to Goa.

Maharashtra

• Palaeolithic tools are found along the coast and in the valleys of Wardha and Wainganga.
• Stratigraphic profiles of the Mula-Mutha,Godavari,Pravara, and Tapi rivers have been documented.
• Lower and middle Palaeolithic tools have been discovered in the Dattawadi area of the Mutha river in Pune.
• Lower Palaeolithic tools have been found in the Gangawadi area on the Godavari at Nasik.
• Palaeolithic tools such as handaxes, choppers, cleavers, scrapers, and borers have been reported from Chirki near Nevasa.
• Other important Palaeolithic sites include Koregaon,Chandoli, and Shikarpur.

Central India

• Palaeolithic remains are found inDamoh,Raisen, and the valleys of the Narmada, upper Son, and Mahanadi rivers.
• The Narmada valley is rich in prehistoric remains, with excavations at Adamgarh hill revealing lower and middle Palaeolithic tools.
• Bhimbetka, in Raisen district, has provided evidence of a long sequence of occupation from the lower Palaeolithic to historic periods.
• The site, composed of sandstone and quartzite, attracted Stone Age people for its shelter, food, and raw material for tools.
• Palaeolithic tools at Bhimbetka are primarily made of locally available yellowish quartzite, with some grey quartzite sourced from further away.
• Five floors from the lower Palaeolithic, paved with flat stone slabs, have been identified, although no bones have been found due to acidic soil.

South India

• Palaeolithic sites are linked to ecological variations such as erosional features and soil types.
• Tapti,Godavari,Bhima, and Krishna rivers have yielded numerous Palaeolithic sites.
• The Tapti trough features deep regur(black soil), while the remaining areas are mostly covered by medium regur.
• Palaeolithic sites are scarce in the upper reaches of the Bhima and Krishna rivers.
• Palaeolithic sites have been reported from the Malaprabha and Ghatprabha river basins in Karnataka.
• Ghatprabha basin is particularly rich in Acheulian handaxes, with significant sites like Anagawadi and Bagalkot, where both early and middle Palaeolithic tools have been found.
• Lower Palaeolithic tools have been identified in the Hunsgi–Baichbal and Krishna valleys.
• Palaeolithic tools have been found at various locations in Hunsgi, a tributary of the Krishna river. Sites with few tool types may represent specific activities, while larger sites with a variety of tools may have been temporary or longer-term living areas.
• Palaeolithic tools in Hunsgi are made from various stones, including limestone, sandstone, quartzite, dolerite, and chert, some of which are not locally available.

Tamil Nadu

• Palaeolithic tools are abundant in the rivers Palar,Penniyar, and Kaveri.
• Sites from early Palaeolithic to mesolithic periods are found near Chennai.
• Gudiyam cave, near Chennai, has yielded a sequence of lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic tools, although the scarcity of tools and other remains suggests short-term occupation.
• Attirampakkam, in the Kortallayar river basin, is one of the richest Palaeolithic sites in Tamil Nadu, with a sequence of lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic cultures, interrupted by a break in occupation after the middle Palaeolithic period.
• Most artefacts, primarily handaxes, were made from quartzite stones not locally available. A set of animal footprints found with Acheulian tools and fossil teeth of animals like horse, water buffalo, and nilgai indicate an open and wet landscape during the early Palaeolithic.

Andhra Pradesh

• Palaeolithic tools have been found in both inland and coastal regions, including Visakhapatnam.
• Nagarjunakonda provides palaeo-climatic evidence of alternating wet and dry cycles.

Kerala

• Palaeolithic tools such as choppers and scrapers made of quartz have been found in the Palghat district.

Eastern India

• Palaeolithic tools like handaxes, bifacial chopping tools, and flakes have been found along the river Raro(Singhbhum, Jharkhand).
• Palaeolithic sites in Jharkhand and West Bengal include river valleys and foothills of the Chhotanagpur plateau.In Bihar, a lower Palaeolithic living and working floor was excavated at Paisra in the Kharagpur forests near Munger, rich in finished and unfinished artefacts, broken pieces of stone, and anvils. Post-holes indicate the presence of thatched huts.
• Palaeolithic tools from all three phases have been found in Orissa, with lower and middle Palaeolithic tools found in explorations at Dari-dungri in Sambalpur district, along the valleys of the Budhabalan and Brahmani rivers, and in the deltaic region of the Baitarani, Brahmani, and Mahanadi rivers. 
• The Buharbalang Valley in Mayurbhang has Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools like handaxes, scrapers, points, and flakes.

Society during the Palaeolithic Age

Settlements and Social Structure

• Palaeolithic people constructed shelters from rock, branches, grass, leaves, or reeds. Evidence shows both more and less permanent settlements, with some sites indicating specific activities.
• Sites like Bhimbetka and Hunsgi show continuous occupation over centuries, while others indicate temporary camps where people lived for part of the year before moving on.
• Some sites are linked to specific activities, such as kill or butchery sites and factory sites.
• The social structure of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers likely resembled a ‘band society’, characterized by:
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  • Bands of less than 100 people, nomadic and moving based on the availability of animals and plant food.
  • Kinship ties among members with division of labor based on age and sex.
  • Exchange of goods based on reciprocity rather than commercial exchange, with no single person owning natural resources.
  • No formal government or leaders, with behavior regulated by customs and social etiquette.

Subsistence Pattern

• Palaeolithic humans had limited material desires and their technology did not allow them to hoard food, leading to a quick cessation of subsistence-related activities once enough food was obtained.
• Ethnographic evidence suggests that not all modern hunter-gatherers live a hand-to-mouth existence; many have leisure time for activities like sleeping, chatting, playing games, and relaxing.
• The view that hunting-gathering is an inefficient mode of subsistence is challenged by its long history and continued practice, with many groups practicing restraint in resource exploitation to conserve the environment.

A variety of animals, both indigenous and foreign, were present, including:

• Indigenous animals like primates, giraffe-like forms, musk deer, goats, buffaloes, bovids, and pigs.
• Foreign animals like the camel and horse, which have North American connections, and the hippopotamus and elephant, which migrated from Central Africa.
• Most immigrant animals came along the Northwest borders, indicating significant interaction between India and Africa.
• Faunal remains suggest that Palaeolithic people were primarily in a hunting and gathering stage, with a balance between human and animal populations ensuring food supply.
• Hunting practices focused on large and medium-sized mammals, especially ungulates, as well as deer,rhinos, and elephants.
• Subsistence patterns seemed to follow a dry season/wet season cycle for exploiting plant and animal foods.
• Palaeolithic people likely subsisted on animals like oxen,bison,nilgai,chinkara,gazelle,black buck antelope,sambar,spotted deer,wild boar,birds,tortoises,fishes,honey, and plant foods like fruits,roots,seeds, and leaves.
• Modern hunter-gatherers often obtain a significant portion of their food through gathering rather than hunting, suggesting that the emphasis on hunting in the term ‘hunter-gatherer’ may be overstated.
• In most modern hunter-gatherer communities, men hunt and women gather food, indicating a similar division of labor in Palaeolithic times. If plant food was more important, women likely played a major role in the subsistence base.
• Palaeolithic people probably consumed a mix of animal products and wild plant foods.
• Rock paintings and carvings from the Upper Palaeolithic age provide insight into subsistence patterns and social life.
• Paintings from sites like Bhimbetka depict large animals like bisons,elephants,tigers,rhinos, and boars, reflecting a focus on hunting.
• The paintings also show that Palaeolithic people lived in small band societies, exploiting resources from both animal and plant products.
• Upper Palaeolithic settlements were often associated with permanent sources of water, and tools like grinding stones were likely used for processing plant foods such as wild rice.