Indus Valley Civilisation: Date and Extent | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Indus Civilization, was a Bronze Age civilization located in the northwestern regions of South Asia. It thrived from around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, with its mature phase occurring between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE.
• The civilization was one of three early civilizations in the Near East and South Asia, alongside ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Among these, the Indus Valley Civilization was the most widespread, covering a large area that included much of Pakistan, northeast Afghanistan, and northwestern India.
• The civilization flourished primarily in the alluvial plain of the Indus River, which runs through Pakistan, and along a network of perennial monsoon-fed rivers near the Ghaggar-Hakra system, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

Discovery and Expansion

• The first sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were discovered in the valley of the Indus River and its tributaries, leading to its designation as the 'Indus Valley Civilization' or 'Indus Civilization.' The Harappan culture zone covered a vast area, ranging from 680,000 to 800,000 square kilometers.
• Sites associated with this civilization have been found in various regions, including:
• Afghanistan
• Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, and North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan
• Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and western Uttar Pradesh in India
• The northernmost site is Manda in Jammu, the southernmost is Daimabad in Maharashtra, the westernmost is Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of Pakistan, and the easternmost is Alamgirpur in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh. There is also an isolated site at Shortughai in Afghanistan.

Dating the Civilization

• Before the development of radiocarbon dating, the chronology of the Indus Valley Civilization was established by comparing it with the Mesopotamian civilization, with which the Harappans had contact. John Marshall initially suggested that the Harappan civilization flourished between 3250 and 2750 BCE. However, as Mesopotamian dates were revised, the Harappan dates were adjusted to around 2350–2000/1900 BCE.
• The introduction of radiocarbon dating in the 1950s allowed for more accurate dating of the civilization. Over time, more sites have yielded radiocarbon dates. Excavations at Harappa between 1986 and 1996 provided over 70 new radiocarbon dates, although none from the earliest levels, which are submerged.
• D. P. Agrawal (1982) proposed dates of around 2300–2000 BCE for the core regions and 2000–1700 BCE for peripheral zones based on uncalibrated radiocarbon dates. Recent calibrated C-14 dates suggest a timeframe of approximately 2600–1900 BCE for the urban phase in the core regions of the Indus Valley, Ghaggar-Hakra Valley, and Gujarat. These dates align closely with those established through cross-dating with Mesopotamia, though individual site dates may vary.
• Collating the calibrated radiocarbon dates from various sites gives the following broad chronology for the three phases of the Harappan culture:
  • early Harappan, c. 3200–2600 BCE;
  • mature Harappan, c. 2600–1900 BCE; and
  • late Harappan, c. 1900–1300 BCE.

Extent

The Indus Valley Civilisation was roughly contemporary with the other riverine civilisations of the ancient world: Ancient Egypt along the Nile, Mesopotamia in the lands watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris, and China in the drainage basin of the Yellow River and the Yangtze.By the time of its mature phase, the civilisation had spread over an area larger than the others, which included a core of 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) up the alluvial plain of the Indus and its tributaries.

Geographical Spread

• West to East: From Balochistan to western Uttar Pradesh.
• North to South: From northeastern Afghanistan to Gujarat state.

Core Regions

• Punjab
• Gujarat
• Haryana
• Rajasthan
• Uttar Pradesh
• Jammu and Kashmir
• Sindh
• Balochistan

Coastal Settlements

• From Sutkagan Dor in western Balochistan to Lothal in Gujarat.

Notable Sites

• Shortugai on the Oxus River
• Manda in Jammu on the Beas River
• Alamgirpur on the Hindon River
• Bhagtrav or Daimabad in Maharashtra (southernmost site)
• Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast (westernmost site)
• Alamgirpur in Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh (easternmost site)

Settlements Location

• Most sites are found along rivers, ancient seacoasts (e.g.,Balakot), and islands (e.g.,Dholavira).

Pre-Harappan era: Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh is a significant Neolithic site in the Balochistan province of Pakistan, dating from around 7000 BCE to approximately 2500 BCE. It has provided crucial insights into the early stages of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Key Points about Mehrgarh:

• Farming and Herding: Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites in South Asia with evidence of farming and herding practices.
• Influence from the Near East: Mehrgarh shows similarities with Near Eastern Neolithic practices, including domesticated wheat varieties, early farming methods, pottery, and other archaeological artifacts. This suggests a cultural exchange with the Near East.
• Domestication: Evidence of domesticated plants and herd animals, such as wheat, barley, sheep, and goats, has been found at the site.
• Pottery and Artefacts: Distinct pottery styles and various archaeological artifacts provide insights into the daily lives and practices of the people living in Mehrgarh during this period.

Early Harappan

The Early Harappan period, particularly the Ravi Phase, marks a significant phase in the development of the Indus Valley Civilization. This era, lasting from around 3300 BCE to 2800 BCE, is characterized by the transition of communities from rural to urban settings, laying the groundwork for the later, more advanced phases of the civilization.

Key Features of the Early Harappan Ravi Phase:

• Migration and Settlement: The phase began with farmers migrating between mountain regions and lowland river valleys, indicating a flexible and adaptive lifestyle. This migratory pattern is also linked to the Hakra Phase in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west.
• Development of Urban Centers: By 2600 BCE, communities transitioned from villages to large urban centers. This shift marks the beginning of the Mature Harappan phase, with increased urbanization and complexity in societal organization.
• Trade Networks: Trade networks expanded significantly during this period, connecting communities with regional and distant sources of raw materials. This includes materials like lapis lazuli and other resources for bead-making.
• Agricultural Practices: Villagers had domesticated a variety of crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals like the water buffalo. This agricultural diversity supported the growing population and urban centers.
• Indus Script: The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to this period, indicating the emergence of written communication and record-keeping.
• Cultural Uniformity: The final stages of the Early Harappan period are marked by a relatively uniform material culture across regional communities. This is reflected in pottery styles, ornaments, and stamp seals with Indus script.

Sites like Rehman Dheri and Amri in Pakistan represent the mature phase of earlier village cultures, while Kot Diji is indicative of the phase leading up to the Mature Harappan, with evidence of centralized authority and urban characteristics. Other towns, such as Kalibangan in India, also provide insights into this transitional period.

In summary, the Early Harappan Ravi Phase is a crucial period in the evolution of the Indus Valley Civilization, characterized by migration, trade, agricultural development, and the emergence of urban centers, setting the stage for the more advanced Mature Harappan phase.

Indus Valley Civilization: Timeline Overview

1. Pre-Harappan Era: Mehrgarh (7000 BCE - 2500 BCE)

• Location: Balochistan, Pakistan
• Evidence of early farming and herding, influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic.

2. Early Harappan Period: Ravi Phase (3300 BCE - 2800 BCE)

• Settlement: Transition from rural to urban communities.
• Trade: Expansion of trade networks with regional and distant sources.

3. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE - 1900 BCE)

• Urban centres reached their peak, characterized by advanced town planning, trade, and cultural uniformity.

4. Late Harappan Period (1900 BCE - 1300 BCE)

• Continued urbanization and cultural developments, though with regional variations.

Mature Harappan

Formation and Development of the Indus Valley Civilization

• The evolution of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was significantly influenced by the gradual southward migration of the monsoon rains across Asia. This climatic shift enabled the early villages in the Indus Valley to manage and benefit from the floods of the Indus River and its tributaries.
• These flood-supported conditions led to high agricultural surpluses, which were crucial for the emergence and growth of urban centers. Notably, the residents of the IVC did not develop advanced irrigation systems; instead, they relied primarily on the seasonal monsoon rains and the floods that accompanied them during the summer months.
• Interestingly, the rise of sophisticated urban centers around 2600 BCE coincided with a decrease in rainfall. This change in climatic conditions may have prompted a reorganization of these communities into larger, more complex urban areas.

Fusion of Cultural Traditions

• According to researchers J.G. Shaffer and D.A. Lichtenstein, the Mature Harappan civilization emerged as a blend of different cultural traditions, specifically the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions.
• This fusion took place in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, a region situated on the borders of present-day India and Pakistan. The interplay of these diverse traditions contributed to the complexity and richness of the Harappan culture.

Role of Mohenjo-daro and Hakra-Ghaggar Sites

• In the context of the Harappan civilization's development, the site of Mohenjo-daro holds significant importance. Archaeologist Maisels (2003) emphasizes that Mohenjo-daro, along with the Hakra-Ghaggar cluster of sites, played a crucial role in the synthesis of various cultural elements.
• These sites are seen as catalytic in producing the fusion of Hakra, Kot Diji, and Amri-Nal cultural elements, leading to the formation of what is recognized as the Early Harappan or Early Indus culture.

Transition to Urban Centers

• By around 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities underwent a transformation into large urban centers. Notable urban sites that emerged during this period include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in present-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in present-day India.
• In total, more than 1,000 settlements have been identified, primarily located in the regions surrounding the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. This expansion reflects the remarkable organizational and agricultural capabilities of the Harappan people, setting the stage for one of the world's earliest urban civilizations.

Late Harappan Period

Around 1900 BCE, signs of a gradual decline in the Indus Valley civilization began to emerge, and by 1700 BCE, most cities were abandoned. Recent studies of human skeletons from Harappa indicate an increase in interpersonal violence and infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis towards the end of this civilization.

Historian Upinder Singh describes the late Harappan phase as a time of urban network breakdown and the expansion of rural areas.

During the period from 1900 to 1700 BCE, various regional cultures emerged within the Indus area:

• Cemetery H culture: Found in Punjab,Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
• Jhukar culture: Located in Sindh.
• Rangpur culture: Notable for Lustrous Red Ware pottery, found in Gujarat.

Other significant sites from the late Harappan phase include Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, India.

The largest late Harappan sites, such as Kudwala in Cholistan,Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in Maharashtra, were urban but smaller and fewer in number compared to the mature Harappan cities. Bet Dwarka was fortified and maintained contacts with the Persian Gulf region, although long-distance trade generally declined during this period.

Despite the decline in urban centers, there was a diversification of the agricultural base with a variety of crops and the introduction of double-cropping. Additionally, rural settlements shifted towards the east and south.

Harappan, Indus, or Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilization?

The vast geographical extent of the civilization makes it questionable to use the terms ‘Indus’ or ‘Indus Valley’ civilization. Some scholars prefer the terms ‘Indus–Sarasvati’ or ‘Sindhu–Sarasvati’ civilization because many sites are located along the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which some associate with the ancient Sarasvati river mentioned in the Rig Veda.

However, the same objection to the terms ‘Indus’ or ‘Indus Valley’ civilization applies to ‘Indus–Sarasvati’ or ‘Sindhu–Sarasvati’ civilization. Since the civilization was not limited to the valleys of the Indus or Ghaggar-Hakra rivers, the term ‘Harappan’ civilization is more appropriate. This term follows the archaeological practice of naming a culture after the site where it is first identified. Using the term Harappan civilization does not mean that all sites are identical to Harappa or that the culture originated there. In fact, some scholars, like Possehl, argue for breaking the Harappan culture into sub-regions or domains.

Identifying Harappan Sites

Newspapers and magazines often report the discovery of new Harappan sites based on a checklist of archaeological features. One important marker is pottery. Typical Harappan pottery is red with black painted designs and comes in various forms and motifs. Other material traits associated with the civilization include:

• Terracotta cakes: These are pieces of terracotta, usually triangular or round, with an unclear function.
• Standardized brick size: Bricks are typically in a 1:2:4 ratio.
• Stone and copper artifacts: Certain types of stone and copper tools and objects.

When these basic Harappan material traits are found together at a site, it is classified as a Harappan site.

Phases of Harappan Culture

The Harappan culture is understood as a long and complex process with at least three phases:

• Early Harappan: This is the formative, proto-urban phase of the culture.
• Mature Harappan: This phase represents the urban peak and full-fledged stage of civilization.
• Late Harappan: This phase marks the post-urban period when cities began to decline.

Different Terminology

Different scholars use various terminologies to describe these phases. For instance, Jim Shaffer (1992) refers to the long series of human adaptations from the neolithic–chalcolithic stage to the decline of the Harappan civilization as the ‘Indus Valley Tradition.’ Within this broader sequence, he identifies:

• Regionalization era: Corresponding to the early Harappan phase.
• Integration era: Aligning with the mature Harappan phase.
• Localization era: Relating to the late Harappan phase.

Shaffer also treats the transitions between early Harappan and mature Harappan, as well as between mature Harappan and late Harappan, as separate, distinct phases.