Philosophy: Skankaracharya and Vedanta, Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Shankaracharya and Vedanta

Vedanta is the most prominent of the six schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning “end of the Vedas”, Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads (Upanishads form the last part of veda), specifically, knowledge and liberation. Vedanta contains many sub-traditions, ranging from dualism to non-dualism, all of which developed on the basis of a common textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi: the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.

All Vedanta schools, in their deliberations, concern themselves but differ in their views regarding ontology, soteriology and epistemology.

Some of the better known sub-traditions of Vedanta include:

• Advaita Darshan – established by Shankaracharya (788-820 CE)
• Vishishtadvaita Darshan – established by Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 CE)
• Dvaita Darshan – established by Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE)
• Bhedabhed (or Dvaitadvait) Darshan – established by Nimbarkacharya
• Shuddhadvait Darshan – established by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE)
• Achintyabhedabhed Darshan – established by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 CE)

Advaita Vedanta:

• Concept: Advaita Vedanta emphasizes non-dualism, asserting that the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman) are one and the same.
• Key Figure: Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE) is a prominent proponent of this school.
• Core Belief: Shankaracharya taught that the perceived differences between the individual self and the supreme self are due to ignorance (avidya) and that true knowledge reveals their unity.
• Path to Liberation: Moksha, or liberation, is achieved through the realization of this oneness, transcending the illusion of multiplicity.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta:

• Concept: Vishishtadvaita, or qualified non-dualism, posits that while Atman and Brahman are distinct, they are also inseparably united.
• Key Figure: Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 CE) is the chief exponent of this philosophy.
• Core Belief: Ramanuja teaches that individual souls have their own identities but are ultimately part of and dependent on the supreme reality, Brahman.
• Path to Liberation: Moksha involves devotion and surrender to God, recognizing the unique relationship between the individual and the divine.

Dvaita Vedanta:

• Concept: Dvaita Vedanta advocates dualism, maintaining a clear distinction between the individual soul and God.
• Key Figure: Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE) is the founder of this school.
• Core Belief: Madhva emphasizes that the soul and God are eternally different and that this difference is fundamental.
• Path to Liberation: Moksha is attained through devotion and service to God, acknowledging the eternal distinction between the divine and the individual.

Shuddhadvaita Vedanta:

• Concept: Shuddhadvaita, or pure non-dualism, teaches that the individual soul is distinct yet fundamentally the same as Brahman.
• Key Figure: Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE) is a major proponent of this philosophy.
• Core Belief: Vallabha emphasizes the purity of the soul and its inherent unity with Brahman, the ultimate reality.
• Path to Liberation: Moksha is realized through devotion and love for God, recognizing the soul's purity and unity with the divine.

Achintyabhedabheda Vedanta:

• Concept: Achintyabhedabheda, or inconceivable oneness and difference, posits that the individual soul and God are simultaneously one and different.
• Key Figure: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 CE) is a key figure in this tradition.
• Core Belief: Chaitanya teaches that while the soul and God are distinct, they are also inseparably united in a manner that transcends human understanding.
• Path to Liberation: Moksha is achieved through love and devotion to God, embracing the mystery of the soul's relationship with the divine.

Adi Shankaracharya:

• Born in Kerala to a devout Brahmin family in the 8th century AD, he became a pivotal figure in Indian philosophy.
• Shankaracharya's teachings centered around the concept of Advaita Vedanta, which emphasizes the unity of the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman).
• He argued that Brahman is the only true reality, devoid of attributes (nirguna), while the material world (Prakriti) is an illusion (maya).
• Shankaracharya proposed that the perceived difference between the individual self and the supreme Self is due to ignorance (avidya) and the limitations imposed by the body.
• He identified two levels of reality: conventional (soul) and absolute (Brahman), emphasizing that ignorance leads to the confusion of these two realities.
• Realizing the oneness of Atman and Brahman is the key to liberation (Moksha), which can only be achieved when ignorance is eliminated.
• Shankaracharya focused on the path of knowledge as a means to attain liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Shankaracharya's Role as a Political Sage:

• Shankaracharya was more than just a philosopher; he actively engaged with the political and social issues of his time.
• His teachings and philosophical frameworks helped address the fragmented political landscape of post-Gupta India.
• By promoting the unity of various religious and philosophical traditions, he contributed to a sense of cultural and intellectual continuity in a politically turbulent period.

Doctrine of Jagat mithya, Brahma satyam:

• Shankara’s non-dualist maxim, which means the world that we experience is essentially illusory or rather, mind-dependent epistemological truths.
• The only mind-independent ontological truth is Brahma, variously translated as God, soul, consciousness, language, or the infinitely expanded, eternal, unconditioned mind.

Maya-vada:

• Shankara united different religious cults by reducing the world to mere illusion.
• He reconciled diverse worldviews, such as Buddhists, Mimansakas, Vedantins, Shaivas, Vaishnavas, and Shaktism.

Shankara’s Vedic Authority:

• Shankara traced his knowledge to the Vedas and submitted to its impersonal authority, distinguishing him from Buddhists and Jains.
• This belief system made him an astika, or a believer in Vedic authority.

Buddhist Influence:

• Shankara’s emphasis on nirguna Brahman as the only reality in his commentaries and treatises has been interpreted as a disguised acceptance of Buddhist themes.
• This is evident in works like the Brahma-sutra-bhasya, Vivekachudamani, Nirvana-shatakam, and Atma-bodha.

Celebration of Saguna Brahman:

• Shankara also celebrated tangible forms of the divine, composing grand benedictions to Puranic gods like Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti.
• This made him the first Vedic scholar to link Vedic Hinduism with Puranic Hinduism and to write on Tantra.

Geographical Unification:

• Shankara connected holy spots across India, creating pilgrim routes and defining India as a single land.
• He traveled and linked various regions, including Kerala, Kashmir, Puri, Dwarka, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh.

Communication in Sanskrit:

• Shankara communicated through Sanskrit, the language that connected the intellectual elite of the land.

Fragmented Society:

• Shankara acknowledged the fragmented nature of society, observing the lack of a universal ruler.

Binding Through Philosophy:

• In a politically fragmented India, he sought to bind the subcontinent through philosophy, poetry, and pilgrimage.

Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita

Ramanuja: Key Points

• Ramanuja, also known as Ramanujacharya (1077–1157 CE), was a prominent Indian theologian and philosopher, known for his role in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism.
• He played a significant role in shaping the philosophical foundations of devotionalism, which influenced the Bhakti movement.
• Ramanuja was a disciple of Yadava Prakasa, a scholar from the Advaita Vedānta tradition. However, he diverged from his guru's teachings, aligning more with the Tamil Alvars tradition and scholars like Nathamuni and Yamunacharya.
• His philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) presented a unique perspective, competing with the Dvaita (theistic dualism) of Madhvacharya and the Advaita (non-dualism) of Adi Shankara.
• Vishishtadvaita posits that soul and matter are attributes of Brahman, where the world is not separate from God but formed out of Him. While it emphasizes unity, it also recognizes the distinction between individual souls and God.
• Ramanuja's concept of Brahman is 'Sagun Brahma,' a form of qualified monism. He advocated the path of bhakti (devotion) for attaining moksha (liberation).
• Prapti, an intense form of bhakti, is crucial for moksha, which involves the soul becoming one with Brahman through God's grace.
• He redefined Vedanta philosophy by emphasizing devotional worship to a personal God and authored significant texts like Sri Bhashya and Bhagavad Gita Bhashya.
• Ramanuja balanced orthodox Brahmanism with popular bhakti, promoting accessibility to all, including lower castes and outcastes, in the practice of bhakti.
• He challenged caste distinctions and aimed to eradicate untouchability within the context of bhakti.